China Country Handbook
This handbook provides basic reference information on China, including its ge-
ography, history, government, military forces, and communications and trans-
portation networks. This information is intended to familiarize military per sonnel
with local customs and area knowledge to assist them during their assignment
to China.
The Marine Corps Intel ligence Activity is the community coordinator for the
Country Hand book Program. This product reflects the coordinated U.S. Defense
Intelligence Community position on China.
Dissemination and use of this publication is restricted to official military and gov-
ernment personnel from the United States of America, United Kingdom, Canada,
Australia, NATO member countries, and other countries as required and desig-
nated for support of coalition operations.
The photos and text reproduced herein have been extracted solely for research,
comment, and information reporting, and are intended for fair use by designated
personnel in their official duties, including local reproduction for training. Further
dissemination of copyrighted material contained in this docu ment, to include ex-
cerpts and graphics, is strictly prohibited under Title 17, U.S. Code.
iii
CONTENTS
KEY FACTS .................................................................... 1
U.S. MISSION ................................................................. 2
U.S. Embassy, Beijing ................................................ 2
U.S. Consulate, Guangzhou ........................................ 2
U.S. Consulate, Shanghai ........................................... 2
U.S. Consulate, Shenyang ........................................... 2
U.S. Consulate, Chengdu ............................................ 3
U.S. Consulate Hong Kong ......................................... 3
Travel Advisories ........................................................ 3
Entry Requirements ................................................... 3
Passport/Visa Requirements .................................. 3
Hong Kong, Macau, and Tibet ............................... 4
Restricted Areas .......................................................... 5
Immunization Requirements ....................................... 5
Customs Restrictions .................................................. 6
GEOGRAPHY AND CLIMATE ..................................... 6
Geography .................................................................. 6
Borders ................................................................... 6
Bodies of Water ...................................................... 12
Topograp5hy .......................................................... 14
Vegetation .............................................................. 14
Environment ........................................................... 15
Climate ........................................................................ 19
Phenomena ............................................................ 19
TRANSPORTATION AND COMMUNICATION .......... 23
Transportation ............................................................. 23
Roads ..................................................................... 23
iviv
Contents (Continued)
Rail ......................................................................... 27
Air .......................................................................... 30
Maritime ................................................................ 31
Communication ........................................................... 32
Radio and Television .............................................. 32
Telecommunication ................................................ 32
Internet ................................................................... 33
Newspapers and Magazines ................................... 34
Postal Service ......................................................... 35
Satellites ................................................................. 35
CULTURE ....................................................................... 35
Statistics ...................................................................... 36
People .......................................................................... 36
Population Patterns ..................................................... 36
People .......................................................................... 41
Ethnic Groups ........................................................ 41
Family ......................................................................... 45
Roles of Men and Women ...................................... 46
Education and Literacy Rates ..................................... 47
Language ..................................................................... 47
Beliefs ......................................................................... 49
Recreation ................................................................... 55
Customs and Courtesies .............................................. 55
Greetings ................................................................ 57
Gestures ................................................................. 57
Visiting ................................................................... 57
Clothing ................................................................. 58
Food ....................................................................... 58
v
v
Contents (Continued)
MEDICAL ASSESSMENT ............................................. 59
Disease Risks to Deployed Personnel ......................... 59
Medical Capabilities ................................................... 62
Key Medical Facilities .......................................... 64
HISTORY ......................................................................... 68
Dynastic Period ........................................................... 68
Early 20th Century China ........................................... 69
The People’s Republic of China ................................. 70
The “Great Leap Forward” ................................... 71
The Great Proletarian Cultural Revolution ............ 71
The Post-Mao Era ....................................................... 73
Student Movement, Tiananmen Square ................. 75
Third Generation Leaders ...................................... 77
Fourth Generation Leaders ................................... 78
Taiwan ......................................................................... 79
Chronology of Key Events ..................................... 81
GOVERNMENT AND POLITICS .................................. 83
Government ................................................................. 83
National Level ....................................................... 83
Local Level ............................................................ 87
Politics ........................................................................ 88
Foreign Relations ................................................... 88
Outlook .................................................................. 92
ECONOMY .................................................................... 93
Economic Statistics .................................................... 93
Resources .................................................................... 93
Energy ......................................................................... 94
Science and Technology ............................................. 95
Foreign Investment ...................................................... 96
vivi
Contents (Continued)
THREAT .......................................................................... 98
Crime .......................................................................... 98
Travel Security ........................................................... 99
Terrorism ..................................................................... 101
Intelligence Services ................................................... 103
Ministry of State Security ...................................... 103
Host Nation Intelligence Threat ............................. 104
Foreign Intelligence Threat ................................... 105
ARMED FORCES ........................................................... 105
Organization ................................................................ 107
State and Party Central Military Commissions ..... 107
Operational Control of the PLA ........................... 108
Rank Structure ............................................................ 109
Army ........................................................................... 110
Mission .................................................................. 110
Organization ........................................................... 110
Facilities ................................................................. 111
Personnel ................................................................ 114
Doctrine ................................................................. 117
Equipment .............................................................. 119
PLA Air Force (PLAAF) ............................................ 124
Mission .................................................................. 124
Organization ........................................................... 124
Personnel ................................................................ 125
Operations .............................................................. 126
Capabilities ........................................................... 126
Training .................................................................. 128
Equipment .............................................................. 129
vii
vii
Contents (Continued)
Navy ............................................................................ 132
Organization ........................................................... 132
Strategy .................................................................. 132
Personnel ................................................................ 134
Equipment ............................................................. 134
Equipment ............................................................. 138
Deployment ............................................................ 139
Issues ...................................................................... 140
Plans and Programs ................................................ 140
Coastal Defense Forces .............................................. 142
PLA(N) Marines ......................................................... 142
Mission .................................................................. 142
Organization ........................................................... 143
Personnel ................................................................ 144
Capabilities ............................................................ 144
Equipment .............................................................. 144
Paramilitary Forces ..................................................... 145
People’s Armed Police ........................................... 145
Public Security Police ............................................ 148
Weapons of Mass Destruction .................................... 150
Chemical Weapons ................................................. 152
Missiles .................................................................. 152
HONG KONG .................................................................... 153
KEY FACTS .................................................................... 153
U.S. MISSION ................................................................. 154
U.S. Consulate, Hong Kong ........................................ 154
Entry Requirements ................................................... 154
Passport/Visa Requirements .................................. 154
viiiviii
Contents (Continued)
GEOGRAPHY ................................................................. 154
Geography ................................................................... 154
Boundaries ............................................................. 154
Land Statistics ........................................................ 155
TRANSPORTATION AND COMMUNICATION .......... 156
Transportation ............................................................. 156
Roads ..................................................................... 156
Rail ......................................................................... 157
Air .......................................................................... 159
Maritime ................................................................ 159
Communication ........................................................... 160
Mass Media ........................................................... 161
Newspapers and Magazines ................................... 162
CULTURE ....................................................................... 162
Society ........................................................................ 162
People .................................................................... 162
Statistics ...................................................................... 163
Ethnic Groups ............................................................. 164
Cultural Considerations .............................................. 164
Etiquette ................................................................. 164
HISTORY ......................................................................... 165
GOVERNMENT AND POLITICS .................................. 165
Government ................................................................. 165
Foreign Relations ........................................................ 166
ECONOMY ..................................................................... 166
Economic Statistics ..................................................... 166
MACAU ............................................................................... 168
KEY FACTS .................................................................... 168
ix
ix
Contents (Continued)
ENTRY REQUIREMENTS ............................................ 169
Passport/Visa Requirements ........................................ 169
GEOGRAPHY ................................................................. 169
Boundaries .................................................................. 169
Land Statistics ............................................................. 169
TRANSPORTATION AND COMMUNICATION .......... 169
Transportation ............................................................. 169
Roads ..................................................................... 169
Air .......................................................................... 170
Maritime ................................................................ 170
Communication ........................................................... 171
CULTURE ....................................................................... 171
Statistics ...................................................................... 171
Society ........................................................................ 171
People .................................................................... 171
HISTORY ......................................................................... 172
GOVERNMENT AND POLITICS .................................. 173
Government ................................................................ 173
Foreign Relations ................................................... 174
ECONOMY ..................................................................... 175
Economic Statistics ..................................................... 175
xx
Contents (Continued)
APPENDICES
Equipment Recognition ................................................... A-1
International Time Zones ................................................. B-1
Conversion Charts ............................................................ C-1
Holidays ........................................................................... D-1
Language .......................................................................... E-1
International Road Signs .................................................. F-1
Deployed Personnel’s Guide to Health Maintenance ...... G-1
Individual Protective Measures ........................................ H-1
Dangerous Plants and Animals ........................................ I-1
International Telephone Codes ......................................... J-1
ILLUSTRATIONS
China ................................................................................ xiii
National Flag .................................................................... 1
Tiananmen Square ............................................................ 4
Asia .................................................................................. 7
China’s Great Wall ........................................................... 8
Tian Shan Mountain Range .............................................. 10
Spratly Islands .................................................................. 11
Yangtze River ................................................................... 12
Three Gorges Dam ........................................................... 13
Topography ...................................................................... 16
Desert Area of Dalain Hob in inner Mongolia ................ 18
Beijing and Hong Kong Weather ..................................... 20
Kashi and Shanghai Weather ........................................... 21
Lhasa and Hailar Weather ................................................ 22
Traffic in Shanghai ........................................................... 23
xi
xi
Contents (Continued)
Transportation .................................................................. 24
Bicyclists Sharing Roads with Vehicles ........................... 26
Maglev Train in Shanghai ................................................ 28
Tiananmen Subway Station, Beijing ................................ 29
Internet Cafe in Beijing .................................................... 34
Population Density ........................................................... 38
Ethnic Groups .................................................................. 42
Han Chinese Family ......................................................... 43
Uighur Men ...................................................................... 44
Tibetan Man ..................................................................... 45
Languages ........................................................................ 48
Buddhist Temple .............................................................. 51
Catholic Church ............................................................... 52
Chairman Mao Zedong .................................................... 70
Deng Xiaoping ................................................................. 72
Pro-democracy Student Protest ........................................ 75
Student-led Hunger Strike ................................................ 76
President Hu Jinato .......................................................... 78
Taiwan .............................................................................. 80
Communist Party Structure .............................................. 83
National Party Congress in Beijing .................................. 85
Chinese People’s Political Consultative Congress ........... 86
Provincial Government .................................................... 87
Three Gorges Dam across the Yangtze River ................... 96
Three Gorges Dam ........................................................... 97
People’s Liberation Army ................................................ 106
Military Regions .............................................................. 113
Army Rank Insignia ......................................................... 115
PLA Troops on Parade ..................................................... 116
xiixii
Contents (Continued)
Air Force Rank Inisgnia ................................................... 125
Navy Rank Insignia .......................................................... 133
Amphibious Landing Exercise ......................................... 143
PAP Forces on Patrol ....................................................... 146
PAP Forces on Parade ...................................................... 147
PSP Officer (left) and PAP Soldier on Patrol ................... 149
Hong Kong Flag ............................................................... 153
Hong Kong and Macau .................................................... 155
Hong Kong Transportation Network ................................ 156
Hong Kong Traffic ........................................................... 157
Hong Kong Mass Transit Railway ................................... 158
Victoria Harbor, Hong Kong ............................................ 160
Macau Flag ....................................................................... 168
Macau ............................................................................... 170
xiii
xiii
Contents (Continued)
20˚
30˚
40˚
50˚
110˚
120˚
120˚
130˚
100˚
90˚
80˚
70˚
East
China
Sea
Yellow
Sea
Sea of
Japan
South China
Sea
Gulf of
Tonking
Bay of
Bengal
Yangtze
Huang He
Xi Jiang
Salween
Mekong
Brahmaputra
Lake
Balkhash
Ozero
Baykal
Luzon
Hainan
Urumqi
Lhasa
Xining
Lanzhou
Yinchuan
Xi'an
Chengdu
Wuhan
Guiyang
Zhengzhou
Shijiazhuang
Tianjin
Hohhot
Taiyuan
Jinan
Hefei
Nanjing
Shanghai
Hangzhou
Nanchang
Changsha
Fuzhou
Guangzhou
Nanning
Kunming
Shenyang
Changchun
Harbin
Haikou
Hailar
Qiqihar
Yantai
Dalian
Qingdao
Xiamen
Chongqing
Golmud
Yumen
Kashi
Yining
Karamay
Shiquanhe
Zhanjiang
Macau(Port.)
Lianyungang
Burqin
Hong Kong
INDIA
NEPAL
BHUTAN
BURMA
LAOS
VIETNAM
THAILAND
PAK.
MONGOLIA
TAJ.
KYRGYZSTAN
KAZAKHSTAN
RUSSIA
NORTH
KOREA
SOUTH
KOREA
JAPA N
PHILIPPINES
TAIWAN
HANOI
VIENTIANE
SEOUL
PYONGYANG
ISLAMABAD
KATHMANDU
ULAN BATOR
ASTANA
BISHKEK
NEW DELHI
THIMPHU
DHAKA
BEIJING
China
0 250 Miles125
0 250 KM125
National Capital
Admin Capital
Other City
International Border
Road
China
1
KEY FACTS
Country Name.
Official Name. People’s Republic of China (PRC)
Short Form. China
Head of State. President Hu Jintao
Capital. Beijing
National Flag. Red with a large, yellow, five-pointed star and four
smaller, yellow, five-pointed stars (arranged in a vertical arc to-
ward the middle of the flag) in the upper hoist-side corner.
Time Zone. UTC (formerly GMT) +8 hours
Telephone Country Code. 86; International access code (00).
Population. 1.3 billion (2008 est.)
Languages. Standard Chinese or Mandarin (Putonghua, based on
the Beijing dialect), Yue (Cantonese), Wu (Shanghaiese), Minbei
(Fuxhou), Minnan (Hokkien-Taiwanese), Xiang, Gan, Hakka dia-
lects, minority languages.
Currency. Renminbi (RMB) or yuan (Y)
Exchange Rate. Y7.03 = US$1.00 (March 2008)
National Flag
2
U.S. MISSION
U.S. Embassy, Beijing
Address Xiu Shui Bei Jie 3, Beijing, China 100600
Telephone [86] (10) 6532-3831
Fax [86] (10) 6532-6929
E-mail [email protected]
Hours Monday - Friday 0800-1700
U.S. Consulate, Guangzhou
Address No 1 Shamian South Street, Guangzhou,
PRC 510133
Telephone (86-20) 8121-8000
Fax (86-20) 8121-9001
E-mail GuangzhouA[email protected]
Hours Monday – Friday 0830 – 1730
U.S. Consulate, Shanghai
Address 1469 Huai Hai Xhong Lu, Shanghai,
PRC 200031
Telephone (86-20) 6433-6880
Fax (86-20) 6433-4122
E-mail [email protected]
Hours
Monday – Friday 0800 – 1130 and 1330 – 1530
U.S. Consulate, Shenyang
Address 52, 14th Wei Road, Heping District, 110003
from the U.S. PSC 461, Box 45, FPOAP 96521-0002
Telephone (86-24) 2322-0848
Fax (86-24) 2322-2374
E-mail ShenyangA[email protected]
3
U.S. Consulate, Chengdu
Address No. 4 Lingshiguan Road, Chengdu Sichuan,
PRC 610041
Telephone (28) 8558-3992, 8558-9642
Fax (28) 8558-3520
E-mail [email protected]
U.S. Consulate Hong Kong
Address 26 Garden Road, Hong Kong
Mailing PSC 461, Box 5, FPO AP 96521-0006
Telephone (852) 2523-9011
Fax (852)2845-1598
E-mail questions@hongkongACS.com
Hours
Monday – Friday 0830 – 1230 and 1330 – 1730
Travel Advisories
There are no travel warnings for China.
Entry Requirements
Passport/Visa Requirements
A valid passport and visa are required to enter China and must be
obtained from a Chinese embassy or consulate before traveling to
China. Americans arriving without valid passports and the appro-
priate Chinese visa are not permitted to enter and are subject to a
fine and immediate deportation at the traveler’s expense. China has
recently tightened its visa issuance policy, in some cases requiring
personal interviews of American citizens and regularly issuing one
or two entry visas valid for short periods only. Business travelers
must obtain a formal invitation from a Chinese business contact.
4
Those traveling on official business for the U.S. government
should obtain visa information from the agency sponsoring their
travel. Tourist visas are issued only after receipt of a confirmation
letter from a Chinese tour agency or letter of invitation from a
relative in China.
For longer stays and more detailed information, contact the Visa
Section of the Chinese Embassy, 2201 Wisconsin Ave., NW,
Washington, DC 20007 (202/328-2500) or nearest Consulate
General: Chicago (312/803-0098), Houston (713/524-4311),
Los Angeles (213/807-8018), New York (212/330-7409) or San
Francisco (415/563-4857). Internet: www.china-embassy.org
Hong Kong, Macau, and Tibet
Visits to Hong Kong require a passport and evidence of onward
or return transportation. A visa is not required for tourist visits by
U.S. citizens of up to 90 days. Visits to Macau require passports.
A visa is not required for tourist visits of up to 30 days in Macau.
Visits to Tibet and other remote areas not normally open to
Tiananmen Square
5
foreigners require permits. Travel arrangements to Tibet can be
made from outside of China, but once in China, travelers wishing
to visit Tibet must join a group, which can be arranged by almost
any Chinese travel agency. The travel agency will arrange for the
necessary permits and collect any fees. The China government
requires foreigners (including U.S. Citizens) wishing to visit Tibet
to apply in advance for approval from the Tourist Administration
of the Tibetan Autonomous Region.
Restricted Areas
Visitors to China should be aware that Chinese regulations strictly
prohibit travel in “closed” areas without special permission.
However, more than 1,200 cities and areas in China are open
to visitors without special travel permits, including most major
scenic and historical sites. To determine whether an area is open
to travel without a permit, seek advice from the nearest U.S.
or Chinese Embassy or Consulate, or the local Chinese public
security bureau.
Immunization Requirements
Prior to deployment the routine immunization for all personnel
should include hepatitis A vaccine, MMR, Tb, and influenza. For
routine operational purposes, vaccination against typhoid should
be administered to all personnel. Depending on the region of de-
ployment, such as rural farming areas or areas of known outbreak
of Japanese encephalitis, personnel may also need vaccination
against Japanese encephalitis. As dictated by appropriate medi-
cal authority, considerations of other vaccines (e.g. HBV, rabies,
and anthrax) may be appropriate. China is subject to chloroquine
sensitive and chloroquine resistant strains of malaria.
6
Customs Restrictions
For stays in China less than 6 months, Chinese customs office per-
mits 400 cigarettes and for stays of more than 6 months customs
permits 600 cigarettes. Chinese customs will also permit 2 liters
of alcoholic beverages, perfume sufficient for personal use. Items
such as watches, radios, cameras, and calculators are permitted for
personal use, but cannot be sold or transferred to others. Prohibited
items include arms, ammunition, explosives, radio transmitter-re-
ceivers, poisonous drugs and narcotics, infected animal or plant
products, and infected foodstuffs. Books, films, records, tapes,
etc., which are detrimental to China’s politics, economy culture,
and ethics (e.g. pornographic or religious content) are prohibited.
GEOGRAPHY AND CLIMATE
Geography
China covers 9,596,960 square kilometers (3.7 million square
miles) and is slightly smaller than the United States. China’s coast-
line is 14,500 kilometers (9,000 miles) long. Water accounts for
270,550 square kilometers (104,460 square miles) of China while
the land area is 9,326,410 square kilometers (3,600,947 square
miles). The terrain ranges from plains, deltas, and hills in the east,
to mountains, high plateaus and deserts in the west. The highest
point in China is Mount Everest at 8,850 meters (29,000 feet) lo-
cated in the Tibetan-Qinghai plateau near Tibet’s southern border.
The lowest point in China is Turpan Pendi (-154 meters) located in
the Uighur Autonomous Region of Xinjiang in western China.
Borders
China borders Russia and Mongolia to the north; North Korea,
the Yellow Sea, and the East China Sea to the east; the South
7
China Sea, Vietnam, Laos, and Burma (Myanmar) to the south
and southeast; Bhutan, Nepal, India, Pakistan, and Afghanistan to
Poland
Est.
Lat.
Lith.
Belarus
Rom.
Moldova
Ukraine
Den.
Ger.
Sweden
Norway
Finland
Iceland
U.K.
Svalbard
(Norway)
Russia
Kazakhstan
Tajikistan
Turkmenistan
Uzbekistan
Kyrgyzstan
Afghanistan
Iran
Pakistan
Oman
Saudi
Arabia
UAE
Iraq
Turkey
Georgia
Armenia
Azerbaijan
Japan
South
Korea
North
Korea
Taiwan
China
Philippines
Vietnam
Malaysia
Malaysia
Indonesia
Burma
Thailand
Laos
Cambodia
Bangladesh
India
Sri
Lanka
Maldives
Mongolia
United States
Hong
Kong
Brunei
Indonesia
Nepal
Arabian
Sea
Bay of
Bengal
South
China
Sea
Andaman
Sea
Philippine
Sea
East
China
Sea
Sea of
Japan
Sea of Okhotsk
North
Pacific
Ocean
Bering
Sea
East
Siberian
Sea
Laptev
Sea
Kara
Sea
Barents
Sea
Norwegian
Sea
0°
20°
40°
80°
120°
160°
80°
40°
0°
60°
60
80°
The Asian Continent
Asia
8
the southwest; and Tajikistan, Kyrgyzstan, and Kazakhstan to the
west. China’s total land boundary is 22,143 kilometers.
Border Disputes
China has made progress in recent years toward settling long-
standing territorial disputes with India, Russia, Vietnam, and
China’s Great Wall
9
Central Asia, but continues to have overlapping territorial claims
with Japan, the Philippines, Malaysia, and Brunei.
China and India both have claims on two regions – Aksai Chin
and Arunachal Pradesh. Aksai Chin is in the disputed territory of
Kashmir, at the junction of Pakistan, Tibet and India. India claims
the 38,000 square-kilometer- (14,671 square-mile-) territory cur-
rently administered by China. In 2005, China and India drafted
a resolve to end their extensive boundary and territorial disputes
and begin a security and foreign policy dialogue to consolidate
discussions related to the boundary, regional nuclear proliferation,
and other matters. Recent talks and confidence-building measures
have begun to defuse tensions over Kashmir, site of the world’s
largest and most militarized territorial dispute with portions under
the de facto administration of China (Aksai Chin), India (Jammu
and Kashmir), and Pakistan (Azad Kashmir and Northern Areas).
India does not recognize Pakistan’s ceding historic Kashmir is-
lands to China in 1964. The Arunachal Pradesh is an area contest-
ed between India and China. It is a state in India in the country’s
northeast, bordering on Bhutan, Bangladesh, Burma and China.
It is under Indian administration, but China claims the 900,000
square-kilometer-area as part of Tibet.
China and Russia were in a dispute involving three islands on
the rivers that form the border between the two countries. The
contested islands included the Bol’shoi Ussuriiskii Island and
Tarabarov Island at the juncture of the Amur and Ussuri rivers,
near Khabarovsk, Russia and Bol’shoi Island on the Argun River.
This dispute was resolved in October 2004. Each of the islands
was split, with half of the territory going to each country, ending a
century-old border dispute.
10
Certain islands in the Yalu and Tumen rivers are in an uncontested
dispute with North Korea and a section of boundary around Mount
Paektu is considered indefinite. The demarcation of the China-Vietnam
boundary proceeds slowly and although the maritime boundary de-
limitation and fisheries agreements were ratified in June 2004.
Maritime Disputes
China asserts sovereignty over the Spratly Islands, as do Malaysia,
Philippines, Taiwan, Vietnam, and Brunei. The Spratly Islands
comprise more than 100 small islands and reefs. They are sur-
rounded by rich fishing grounds and potentially by gas and oil
deposits. About 50 islands are occupied by military forces from
China, Malaysia, the Philippines, Taiwan, and Vietnam; there
are no indigenous inhabitants. The 2002 “Declaration on the
Conduct of Parties in the South China Sea” has eased tensions in
the Spratlys but is not the legally binding “code of conduct.” In
Tian Shan Mountain Range
11
March 2005, the national oil companies of China, the Philippines,
and Vietnam signed a joint accord to monitor seismic activities in
the Spratly Islands.
China occupies some of the Paracel Islands also claimed by Vietnam
and Taiwan. The Paracel Islands are made up of 130 small coral
islands and reefs divided into the northeast Amphitrite Group and
the western Crescent Group, and are located in the South China
Sea, about one-third of the way from central Vietnam to the north-
ern Philippines. The Paracel Islands are disputed because of the
productive fishing grounds and by potential oil and gas reserves.
Tr opic of Cancer
Gulf of
Tonkin
Philippine
Sea
South
China
Sea
Luzon Strait
Sulu
Sea
Mekong
Xi Jiang
Hong Kong
Macau
(Portugal)
TA IPEI
HANOI
PHNOM PENH
MANILA
Con Son
Hainan
Luzon
Batan Islands
Babuyan Islands
Palawan
Mindoro
Panay
Negros
Mindanao
Bohol
Samar
(Japan)
Paracel
Islands
Spratly
Islands
Senkaku
Islands
Ryukyu Islands
CHINA
LAOS
VIETNAM
PHILIPPINES
CAMBODIA
TAIWAN
20°
10°
110°
120°
130°
Disputed Islands
National Capital
International Border
Disputed Islands
0
450 km
0
300 mi
150
150
300
Spratly Islands
12
China and Taiwan have also become more vocal in rejecting Japan’s
claims to the uninhabited islands of Senkaku-shoto (Diaoyu Tai)
and Japan’s unilaterally declared economic zone in the East China
Sea, the site of intensive hydrocarbon prospecting.
Bodies of Water
The principal drainage features of the People’s Republic of China
include large rivers, perennial and intermittent streams, wetlands,
lakes, and canals. Annual rainfall is higher in the southeast than in
the northwest; as a result, perennial rivers are less numerous in the
northwest. China has more than 50,000 rivers with individual drain-
age areas exceeding 100 square kilometers. Because China’s ter-
rain is high in the west and low in the east, most rivers flow from
the west eastward into the Pacific, including the Hai He, Huang He
(Yellow River), Huai He, Chang Jiang (Yangtze River), Min Jiang,
Yangtze River
13
and Zhu Jiang. Most of the major rivers in China are navigable by
larger vessels. The area drained by these rivers covers more than 5
million square kilometers or 63.2 percent of the country’s total area.
The Ertix He (Irtysh-Ob River) is the only river in China that emp-
ties into the Arctic Ocean and drains 0.4 percent of the country. A
few rivers, such as the Tarim He, have no outlet to the sea. These in-
terior rivers flow into inland lakes or disappear in deserts and drain
36.4 percent of China. Most of the interior rivers are in the arid
northwest. The interior rivers are fed by glaciers and melting snow
from the Kunlun, Qilian, and eastern Tien ranges.
China’s water pollution and shortages have become more severe
due to urbanization and industrialization. Among 600 Chinese cit-
ies, 110 are seriously affected by water shortages, which also in-
clude 26 cities along the Yangtze River, China’s longest. China’s
per capita freshwater resources are 2,300 cubic meters, only a
quarter of the world’s average level.
Three Gorges Dam
14
In 1994, China began construction on the Three Gorges Dam
which will be the world’s largest hydroelectric dam. The dam bud-
geted at US$25 billion dollars will assist in controlling flooding
along the lower reached of the Yangtze River. The project is seen
as an important source of energy for China. The Three Gorges
Dam will help meet China’s growing energy consumption. It will
also improve navigation by deepening the river channel behind the
dam to allow ships up to 10,000 tons of displacement to get up-
stream as far as Chongqing. However, the dam might flood more
than 100 towns, forcing an estimated 700,000 people to relocate.
Construction should be completed in 2009.
Topograp5hy
From east to west, the country is divided into three regions. The
easternmost region, along the coast, is fertile with coastal plains,
rolling hills, and river valleys. This region is crowded with most
of China’s population and is noticeably worn bare by centuries of
human occupancy. Further inland is the second region, the loess
highlands of Inner Mongolia and the mountain ranges of Sichuan,
Guizhou, and Yunnan. It also contains some of the world’s largest
deserts including the Gobi and the Takla Makan, huge swamps
such as the Qaidam basin, virgin forests and endless grass-covered
steppes. The westernmost and highest region is the cold Tibetan-
Qinghai plateau. This area includes the Himalayas and Mt. Everest,
which form Tibet’s southern border. The second and third regions,
known as Outer China, are less populated with hardly more than
five percent of the total population.
Vegetation
The vegetation of China is diverse with varieties from temperate
coniferous and deciduous forests to tropical rain forest and desert
scrub. These varieties include all the natural vegetation types that
15
are known to grow in the northern hemisphere, with the exception
of polar tundra. However, centuries of settlement and intensive
cultivation have significantly altered the natural vegetation. Since
1980, the China government has been placing strong emphasis on
a reforestation program. Although the success of this program is
yet undetermined, the government claims that the country has a
total of 133.7 million hectares of forests and that artificial forests
make up 33 million of these hectares. Agricultural lands, primar-
ily located in the eastern provinces, cover only 10 percent of the
country. About half of these lands are irrigated. The most signifi-
cant food crop is rice; nearly a third of all cultivated land is de-
voted to its production.
Environment
China’s economic growth has thrived at the expense of its envi-
ronment. Seven out of 10 of the world’s most polluted cities are
found in China. Most major cities such as Beijing, Xian, Lanxhou
and Jilin are smothered in smog in the winter and summer. China
relies on coal for 70 percent of its energy needs, which has lead
to approximately 40 percent of the country being affected by acid
rain. China’s rivers and wetlands also face extreme challenges
from draining, reclamation, and pollution. It is estimated that
China annually dumps three billion tons of untreated water includ-
ing untreated industrial liquids, domestic sewage, human waste
and chemicals into the ocean through its rivers.
Another problem facing China is desertification. The areas with
the most serious erosion are the Gobi and other areas of Xinjiang,
Inner Mongolia, Qinghai, Tibet, and Gansu in Northwest China.
This is mainly occurring in wind eroded areas in the northwestern
and northern sections of China. Prevailing winds shift twice a year
with winds from the northwest from November to April and winds
16
Golmud
Yumen
Kashi
Yining
Karamay
Shiquanhe
Burqin
Chengdu
Urumqi
Lhasa
Xining
Lanzhou
Kunming
RUSSIA
MONGOLIA
PAKISTAN
INDIA
NEPAL
BHUTAN
BURMA
(MYANMAR)
LAOS
BANGLADESH
THAILAND
KAZAKHSTAN
KYRGYZSTAN
TAJIKISTAN
Bay of
Bengal
4,000+
3,000-4,000
2,000-3,000
1,000-2,000
500-1,000
200-500
Sea Level - 200
China
Elevation (Meters)
0 250 Miles
125
0 250 KM125
Hailar
Qiqihar
Yantai
Dalian
Qingdao
Xiamen
Chongqing
Zhanjiang
Macau
(Portugal)
Lianyungang
Hong Kong
Lanzhou
Yinchuan
Xi'an
Chengdu
Wuhan
Guiyang
Zhengzhou
Shijiazhuang
Tianjin
Hohhot
Taiyuan
Jinan
Hefei
Nanjing
Shanghai
Hangzhou
Nanchang
Changsha
Fuzhou
Guangzhou
Nanning
Shenyang
Changchun
Harbin
Haikou
BEIJING
MONGOLIA
LAOS
VIETNAM
NORTH
KOREA
RUSSIA
Hainan
TAIWAN
SOUTH
KOREA
JAPA N
Yellow
Sea
East
China
Sea
South China
Sea
Gulf of
Tonking
Formosa Strait
Amur
Huang
Ya ngtze
Xun
Topography
17
Golmud
Yumen
Kashi
Yining
Karamay
Shiquanhe
Burqin
Chengdu
Urumqi
Lhasa
Xining
Lanzhou
Kunming
RUSSIA
MONGOLIA
PAKISTAN
INDIA
NEPAL
BHUTAN
BURMA
(MYANMAR)
LAOS
BANGLADESH
THAILAND
KAZAKHSTAN
KYRGYZSTAN
TAJIKISTAN
Bay of
Bengal
4,000+
3,000-4,000
2,000-3,000
1,000-2,000
500-1,000
200-500
Sea Level - 200
China
Elevation (Meters)
0 250 Miles
125
0 250 KM125
Hailar
Qiqihar
Yantai
Dalian
Qingdao
Xiamen
Chongqing
Zhanjiang
Macau
(Portugal)
Lianyungang
Hong Kong
Lanzhou
Yinchuan
Xi'an
Chengdu
Wuhan
Guiyang
Zhengzhou
Shijiazhuang
Tianjin
Hohhot
Taiyuan
Jinan
Hefei
Nanjing
Shanghai
Hangzhou
Nanchang
Changsha
Fuzhou
Guangzhou
Nanning
Shenyang
Changchun
Harbin
Haikou
BEIJING
MONGOLIA
LAOS
VIETNAM
NORTH
KOREA
RUSSIA
Hainan
TAIWAN
SOUTH
KOREA
JAPA N
Yellow
Sea
East
China
Sea
South China
Sea
Gulf of
Tonking
Formosa Strait
Amur
Huang
Ya ngtze
Xun
Topography
18
from the southeast from April through November. The soil known
as loess is very fertile, but has a low tolerance for water. It will
not hold moisture long and is prone to flooding. The winds pick
up soil and sand particles creating sandstorms that move easterly
toward areas such as Beijing. People in Beijing sometimes wear
surgical masks to avoid breathing the particles.
Drought and other natural factors also contribute to China’s deser-
tification. In 2006, the total degraded area in China was estimated
at 8-10 million square kilometers. This destruction contributes to
economic losses of more than RMB47 billion (US$6 billion) a
year. Decades long efforts to control and manage desertification
have not produced adequate results. Experts worry that the pace
of degradation will only accelerate given growing climate changes
and industrialization.
Desert Area of Dalain Hob in inner Mongolia
19
Climate
China’s climate is extremely diverse. It varies from tropical in the
south to subarctic in the north. Winters in the north fall between
December and March and are incredibly cold. Seasonal air mass
movements and accompanying winds are moist in summer and
dry in winter. The advance and retreat of the monsoons signifi-
cantly affect the timing of the rainy season and the amount of
rainfall throughout the country. Tremendous differences in lati-
tude, longitude, and altitude give rise to sharp variation in pre-
cipitation and temperature within China. North of the Great Wall,
into Inner Mongolia temperatures may fall below –40°C (–40°F).
Summer in the north is around May to August. In the central area
of the country summers are long, hot, and humid. High tempera-
tures can be expected between the months of April and October.
Winters in the central area are short and cold with temperatures
dipping below freezing. In the far south, around Guangzhou, the
climate is hot and humid from April to September and tempera-
tures can rise up to 38°C (100°F). April to September is also the
rainy season. Typhoons tend to hit the southeast coast between
July and September. The northwest area of China is hot and dry in
the summer. The desert regions can be scorching in the daytime
with temperatures up to 47°C (117°F). In the winter, this region is
cold, with temperatures around –10°C (14°F).
Phenomena
Natural disasters that occur in China include earthquakes, floods,
landslides, typhoons, and droughts. Volcanoes and tsunamis pose
relatively minor threats. Often one natural disaster causes anoth-
er. For example, earthquakes often trigger landslides in China.
Because of China’s dense populations in areas at risk, disasters
often cause massive loss of life. In the past, when disasters have
20
Beijing and Hong Kong Weather
21
Kashi and Shanghai Weather
22
Lhasa and Hailar Weather
23
occurred, the effects of transportation system and agriculture
disruption has resulted in large-scale starvation and millions of
additional deaths.
TRANSPORTATION AND COMMUNICATION
Transportation
Roads
Highways are significant factors of economic growth in China.
There are 1,447,682 kilometers (899,547 miles) of paved roads,
with at least 29,745 kilometers (18,482 miles) of expressways.
Unpaved roads account for 362,147 kilometers (225,027 miles) and
are mostly in the western region of the country. Road conditions
may vary depending on location. The roads in the eastern, more
populated areas are generally better kept than those in more rural
areas. China continues to invest and improve its road infrastructure
to promote economic growth and support the increasing reliance on
roads for freight and personal transportation. China plans to extend
its road infrastructure to 3 million kilometers, (1,864,100 miles)
with 85,000 kilometers (52,800 miles) of expressway by 2020.
Traffic in Shanghai
24
Ulan
Ude
Irkutsk
Karaganda
Barnaul
Digboi
Katha
Semipalatinsk
Mandalay
Chian Mai
Bhubaneshwar
Calcutta
Nagpur
Alma Ata
VIENTIANE
HANOI
DHAKA
THIMPHU
KATHMANDU
NEW DELHI
ULAANBAATA R
Chongqing
Golmud
Yumen
Kashi
Yining
Karamay
Shiquanhe
Burqin
Altay
Urumqi
Lhasa
Xining
Lanzhou
Yinchuan
Chengdu
Guiyang
Kunming
RUSSIA
MONGOLIA
PAKISTAN
INDIA
NEPAL
BHUTAN
BANGLADESH
MYANMAR
(BURMA)
THAILAND
LAOS
VIETNAM
Bay of
Bengal
Mouths of the
Ganges
Xun
Yangtze
China
National Capital
Admin Capital
Other City
Airports
Ports
International Border
Road
Railroad
0 500 km
0
500 mi
Transportation
25
Ulan
Ude
Khabarovsk
Vladivostok
Pusan
Irkutsk
Chiang
Mai
TAIPEI
Kao Hsiung
Hailar
Qiqihar
Yantai
Dalian
Qingdao
Xiamen
Chongqing
Yumen
Zhanjiang
Macau
Lianyungang
Hong Kong
Xining
Lanzhou
Yinchuan
Xi'an
Chengdu
Wuhan
Guiyang
Zhengzhou
Shijiazhuang
Tianjin
Hohhot
Ta iyuan
Jinan
Hefei
Nanjing
Shanghai
Hangzhou
Nanchang
Changsha
Fuzhou
Guangzhou
Nanning
Kunming
Shenyang
Changchun
Harbin
Haikou
RUSSIA
MONGOLIA
MYANMAR
(BURMA)
THAILAND
LAOS
VIETNAM
PHILIPPINES
NORTH
KOREA
SOUTH
KOREA
TAIWAN
Hainan
Luzon
Yellow
Sea
East
China
Sea
South China
Sea
Gulf of
Tonking
Formosa Strait
Xun
Yangtze
Huang
Amur
BEIJING
PYONGYANG
SEOUL
HANOI
VIENTIANE
ULAANBAATA R
26
Traffic in China is often chaotic; right-of-way and other courtesies
are often ignored. Cars and buses in the wrong lanes frequently hit
pedestrians and bicyclists. Pedestrians should always be careful
while walking near traffic. Traffic and road conditions are generally
not life-threatening if vehicle occupants wear seat belts. Most traffic
accident injuries involve pedestrians or cyclists who are involved
in collision or who encounter unexpected road hazards such as un-
marked manholes. Child safety seats are not widely available.
The roads in China’s southwest, Tibet and the North West are haz-
ardous due to precipitous drops, pot holes, dangerous road sur-
faces, and reckless drivers. The number of cars on China’s roads
has increased rapidly since 1984. The increase is placing pressure
on the government to replace old roads and build new highway
systems. This is a timely process that has left many of China’s
cities with inadequate roads to handle the increased traffic. Some
cities such as Shanghai have expanded major arteries to accom-
Bicyclists Sharing Roads with Vehicles
27
modate increased traffic. Bottlenecks in urban transportation net-
works will be a growing problem throughout this decade and will
worsen as car ownership and usage expands.
Long-distance buses are one of the best means of getting around
China. Buses stop infrequently in smaller towns and villages.
Routes between densely populated cities have a larger and more
comfortable fleet of private buses. The shorter and more isolated
routes still rely on minibuses.
Bikes are an excellent, but dangerous method of getting around
China’s cities or patrolling tourist sights. Individuals who wish to
ride bicycles in China are urged to wear safety helmets. Bicycles
are now competing for road space with more than two million
cars. In some cities such as Beijing bicycle lanes, once some of the
nicest and safest in the world, have been transformed into motor
vehicle lanes or parking areas.
Rail
China has more than 110,000 kilometers (68,300 miles) of railroad,
which serves both passengers and cargo. Approximately 68,000
kilometers (42,253 miles) are on a standard track, 1.435-m gauge;
23,945 kilometers (14,878 miles) are on double track and 18,115
kilometers is electrified. Chinese People’s Republic Railways
(CPRR) operates most of China’s railways. The Ministry of
Railways controls 12 CPRR administrations, as well as most of the
country’s locomotive and rolling stock factories. The railway ad-
ministrations are Harbin, Shenyang, Beijing, Hohhot, Zhengzhou,
Jinan, Shanghai, Guangzhou, Liuzhou, Chengdu, Lanzhou and
Urumqi. Sinotrans and China Ocean Shipping Company offer
limited rail service in conjunction with the Ministry of Railways
but rail cargo is essentially a monopoly of the ministry.
28
Construction of the Qinghai-Tibet Railway began in June 2001. The
railway will traverse the Hoh Xil “no-man’s land,” cross the Kunlun
Mountain Pass (4,767 meters, or 3 miles, above sea level), to enter
the Northern Tibet Plateau, and then go on to Lhasa, capital of Tibet
Autonomous Region. Out of the 1,510 kilometers (940 miles) of this
route, 960 kilometers (600 miles) are more than 4,000 meters above
sea level and 550 kilometers (340 miles) are in areas of frozen earth.
Thirty railway stations have been built, including the Tangula
Mountain station, which will be the highest-altitude railway station
in the world. The Qinghai-Tibet Railway opened July 2006 with the
first passenger trains traveling across the “roof of the world.” This
railway makes it possible to travel from Lhasa, Tibet to Beijing in
48 hours. The Qinghai-Tibet Railway is expected to double tourism
revenue by 2010 and reduce transport costs by 75 percent.
Maglev Train in Shanghai
29
Trains are typically crowded. Chinese trains sell four classes of
accommodation: soft seat, soft sleeper, hard seat and hard sleeper.
Short distance trains provide hard class seats. These seats are the
least expensive and most crowded; the seats in this class force
the passenger to sit upright and the compartment is noisy. Some
inter-city trains also provide soft class seats, which are more
comfortable, less crowded, smoke-free, and less available.
On long distance trains, soft class sleepers have comfortable, 4-berth
compartments and full bedding. Hard class sleepers provide bunks
in open-plan dormitory cars, usually arranged in bays of 6 (upper,
middle and lower) on one side of the aisle, with pairs of seats on the
other side of the aisle for daytime use. The soft sleepers cost twice
as much as hard sleepers and are usually used only by the wealthy.
Subways are also convenient for city travel, but are only available
in Hong Kong, Beijing, Shanghai, Guangzhou and Tianjin.
Tiananmen Subway Station, Beijing
30
Air
China has approximately 472 airports. of which there are 383 sur-
faced runways and 89 unsurfaced runways.
Airport Name Coordinates
Elevation
m (ft)
Runway
Length x Width Surface
Beijing Capital
International
40º 04.5’N 116º 31.4’E 35 (116) 3,800 m (12,467 ft) Asphalt
Guangzhou-Baiyun
International
23º 11.1’N 113º 11.9’E 11 (37) 3,379 m (11,089 ft) Concrete
Shanghai
International
31º 08.57’N 121º 47.54’E 3 (11) 4,000 m (13,123 ft) Concrete
Urumqi
International
43º 54’N 087º 28’E 648 (2,126) 3,600 m (11,811 ft) Concrete
International airports in China include Beijing, Shanghai, Hong
Kong, and Urumqi. People can also enter into China by plane
from Lhasa. Some civil airports are equipped to accommodate
such planes as the Boeing 777s, 767s, 757s, and A340s. There
are more than 750 domestic, 128 international, and 21 regional
air routes.
The Civil Aviation Administration of China (CAAC) regulates
China’s domestic and international airlines. China has
approximately 25 major airlines. Among these airlines are Air
China, China Northwest, China Southern, China Southwest, China
Eastern, China Northern, China National Airlines Company,
Greatwall, and airlines with city names such as Shanghai, Sichuan,
and Yunnan Airlines. The United States has various carriers
with flights to China, including Continental, United, Northwest,
American, Delta, US Airways, and Midwest Airlines.
31
Maritime
China has ports in Dalian, Guangzhou, Nanjing, Ningbo, Qingdao,
Qinhuangdao, and Shanghai. The China merchant marine has a to-
tal of 1,723 ships (1,000 GRT or larger).
China has more than 310 international shipping companies.
China Ocean Shipping Companies (COSCO) and China Shipping
Container Lines (CSCL) are two of China’s largest shipping
companies. COSCO owns and operates 550 modern merchant ships
with a total carrying capacity of up to 30 million DWT including 13
fifth generation containers and 3 VLCCs. It operates in 1,300 ports in
more than 160 countries and regions. COSCO is one of the leading
carriers in international bulk shipping and listed as one of the top
10 container liner operators in the world. CSCL operates more than
50 domestic and international routes. Its vessels serve 152 ports in
more than 75 countries and more than 30 ports domestically.
Boat travel in China has declined with improved bus and air trans-
portation. However, several boating lines remain as shortcuts to the
rather long overland routes. Among these are the Yantai-Dalian ferry
and the Shanghai-Ningbo line. Inland waterway travel is available
on the Yangzi River from Chongqing to Wuhan, on the West (Xi)
River from Guangzhou to Wuzhou, on the Li River from Guilin to
Yangzhou, and on the Grand Canal from Hangzhou to Suzhou.
Primary Port Facilities
Port Name Coordinates Berthing, dwt Depth, m (ft)
Dalian 38º55’N, 121º 41’ E Up to 175,000 6 to 17.5 (19.7 to 57.4)
Qingdao 36º 05’N,120º 18’E Up to 200,000 5.9 to 20 (19.4 to 65.6)
Shanghai 31º15’N, 121º 30’E Up to 150,000 4 to 11.4 (13.1 to 37.4)
Zhanjiang 21º12’N, 110º 25’E Up to 300,000 5 to 18.4 (19.4 to 60.4)
Shenzhen 32º 00’N, 120º 48’E Up to 60,000 6 to 14 (19.7 to 45.9)
Xiamen 24º 29’N, 118º 04’E Up to 60,000 4 to 16.8 (13.1 to 55.1)
32
Communication
Radio and Television
China has approximately 370 AM stations, 260 FM stations, and
45 shortwave radios. Domestic radio broadcasting is controlled by
the Central People’s Broadcasting Station (CPBS). Broadcasts are
made in local dialects and minority languages. English language
programs are also increasing.
There are 3,240 television broadcast stations in China. China
Central Television (CCTV) operates 209, 31 of which are provincial
broadcast stations, and nearly 3,000 are local city stations. The
CCTV has two English channels. Major cities may have a second
local channel. Most hotels have their own film channels. The total
number of television sets in China is more than 428 million.
China has liberalized media markets from the censorship it faced
years ago. However, China continues to censor radio and television
stations for “national cultural safety” by banning programs that
promote Western ideology and politics. Beijing also controls
which movies are allowed into the country, and what content is
allowed on domestically owned stations. Television broadcasts of
foreign programming are restricted largely to hotel and foreign
residence compounds. This programming experiences occasional
censorship of topics including sensitive political issues.
Telecommunication
China maintains control of its telecommunications network
through the Ministry of Information (MOI), created in March
of 1998. Telephone use has rapidly increased in China. In 2005,
there were 345 million main line phones and 383 million mobile
cellular phones. These numbers are expected to hit 520 million
33
cellular phones by 2008 and 600 million by 2010. Domestic and
international mobile services are increasingly available for private
use; unevenly distributed domestic system serves principal cities,
industrial centers, and many towns.
With the increasing use of mobile cellular phones in urban areas, the
government has collaboration in censoring text messages. In July
2004, the government began censoring text messages distributed
by mobile telephone. According to state media, the campaign was
designed to stop the spread of pornographic messages by phone,
as well as to block circulation of illicit news and information. All
text messaging service providers were required to install filtering
equipment to monitor and delete messages deemed offensive by
authorities. In the first week of the campaign’s operation, the
government reportedly fined 10 companies and forced 20 others
to close for failure to comply.
To call from abroad, dial the international access code (00), the
country code for China (86) then the local area code and the
number. Another option is to dial the home country direct dial
number (108) to connect with an operator there.
Internet
China is the second largest internet user after the United States.
Millions of Chinese in urban areas use the Internet and send
electronic mail within and outside the country, either through a
home computer, or more likely, through popular internet cafes.
In 2004, 22 percent of China’s 87 million users accessed the web
at internet cafes. More than half of the internet users access the
internet through broadband. Instant messaging has doubled to 87
million users. Blogs (online personal diaries) reach more than 30
million and search engines receive more than 360 requests a day.
34
However, as with other media, the China government monitors
the internet and censors web sites deemed pornographic or
otherwise politically incorrect. In 2004, more than 60 Chinese
were imprisoned for the peaceful expression of their views over
the internet. Companies such as Google, Microsoft, and Yahoo!
deny censored material to the user by displaying error messages
in order to cooperate with the China government.
Newspapers and Magazines
The state has planned significant book publication projects and
offers prizes for well-written books to promote the publishing
industry. In 2003, there were more than 8,000 periodicals in China,
with a total print run of 2.99 billion, or more than 2.3 copies per
person. English language magazines include the Beijing Review,
Beijing this Month, Chinese Literature, and Openings. English
Internet Cafe in Beijing
35
language newspapers include the People’s Daily, the China Daily,
the Guangzhou Ribao, the Mingo Bao Daily (Hong Kong-based),
and the Beijing Scene (foreigner’s English paper in China).
Newspapers were forbidden from reporting on stories about
leadership changes or political reform unless the source was the
official news agency, Xinhua.
Postal Service
China has an extensive and effective postal service for both do-
mestic and international mail. Domestic mail requires 1-2 days;
air mail and post cards require 5-10 days for delivery. In addition
to local offices, there are branch post offices in almost all major
tourist hotels. Post office staff checks the contents of packets and
parcels before mailing and final packing should not occur until the
parcel has received post office and/or Customs clearance. United
Parcel Service (UPS), Federal Express, DHL and other foreign
companies have established joint-ventures with Chinese organi-
zations for express international mail. Although expensive, these
private carriers are fast and relatively reliable.
Satellites
China has a domestic satellite system with 55 earth stations is in
place. There are various satellite earth stations - 5 Intelsat (4 Pacific
Ocean and 1 Indian Ocean), 1 Intersputnik (Indian Ocean region)
and 1 Inmarsat (Pacific and Indian Ocean regions). There are sever-
al international fiber-optic links to Japan, South Korea, Hong Kong,
Russia, and Germany that have enabled satellite communications.
CULTURE
China is the world’s oldest living civilization in terms of culture
continuity. China also has the largest population in the world.
36
Statistics
Population 1.3 billion (est. 2007)
Age structure percent of total population
0 – 14 years 20.4%
15 – 64 years 71.7%
65 years and older 7.9% (2007 est.)
Population growth rate 0.60%
Gender ratio males per female
At birth 1.11
Under 15 years 1.13
15 – 64 years 1.06
65 years and older 0.91
Total population 1.06 (2007 est.)
People
Population Patterns
China’s population is most dense where there is the most fertile
soil, adequate growing seasons, and greatest economic opportunity.
Approximately 75 percent of the population lives on 15 percent of
the landmass. The population is most heavily concentrated in the
eastern part of the country in the fertile river basins, where there are
densities of 2,000 people or more per square mile. Approximately
30 percent of China’s population resides in China’s 570 cities.
Mainland China is not yet an urbanized society. Urbanites
are estimated to account for only about 27 to 33 percent of the
population. Cities have been undergoing remarkable growth and
transformation since the early 1980s, reflecting trends in the
economy at large. There are now more than 150 cities with at least
200,000 residents and thousands of smaller towns. Shanghai has
37
a municipal population of more than 13 million; Beijing, more
than 11 million; and Tianjin, more than 9 million. These numbers
include residents of surrounding counties that are under the
city’s administrative control. With continued economic growth,
economic specialization, and employment prospects that draw
migrants to urban centers, these cities will continue to expand and
to serve as a barometer of urban China.
Factors affecting the growth of China’s urban population are
migration, natural increase, and boundary changes. The significant
increase in the urban population seems to have resulted more from
redrawing city boundaries than from rural migrants. However, the
state’s dominant and the enormous disparity between urban and
rural areas have contributed to the influx of rural migrants to China’s
cities and the accelerating rate of urbanization in the country.
With a population officially just over 1.3 billion and estimated
growth rate of about 0.6 percent (2006 est.), China is very
concerned about its population growth and has attempted with
mixed results to implement a strict birth limitation policy. China’s
2002 Population and Family Planning Law and policy permit one
child per family, with allowance for a second child under certain
circumstances, especially in rural areas, and with looser guidelines
for ethnic minorities with smaller populations. In 2005, the birth
rate was 13.25 births per 1,000 people, down even from the 15.95
births per 1,000 in 2001. Enforcement varies, and relies largely
on “social compensation fees” to discourage extra births. Official
policy opposes forced abortion or sterilization, but in some localities
there are forced abortions. The government’s goal is to stabilize the
population in the first half of the 21st century. Current projections
are that the population will peak at around 1.6 billion by 2050.
38
Population Density
39
40
The one-child policy attempts to limit population growth by
rewarding families with single children and penalizing larger
ones. It has perpetuated the preference for male children—many
couples, given the option of only having one child, choose to
have a boy. They do this through abortions or infanticide. Some
families put their baby girls up for adoption or abandon them.
Some attribute the one-child policy as the cause of an uneven ratio
of men to women.
Due to this disparity, an abundance of unmarried Chinese men are
unable to find a spouse. Many poor men, unable to compete with
richer bachelors, have resorted to kidnapping or buying kidnapped
brides from gangs. Many women in such situations commit suicide,
the traditional form of protest for a powerless, humiliated person. As
a result, more young, rural women commit suicide than any other
demographic in China. Another problem attributed to the one-child
policy is the graying population of China due to few young people
and the rise of the median age.
The one-child policy has proven difficult to implement in the
countryside, where tradition is strong and favors male children
over female children. The birth of a son is a cause for celebration
while the birth of a daughter is considered only a small happiness.
Many rural families prefer increased productivity over decreased
fertility and are willing to pay the fines established to have more
children to support their livelihood. The one-child policy has been
more successful in urban areas where couples are more removed
from the influence of tradition and less likely to feel presser from
family to produce large families and male heirs.
41
People
Ethnic Groups
The Han majority accounts for 92 percent of the population in
China. Within the Han is a variety of peoples separated along
north-south, coastal-inland, and city-country lines. The minority
population accounts for 8 percent of the population. This includes
Zhuang, Uighur, Hui, Yi, Tibetan, Miao, Manchu, Mongol, Buyi,
Korean, and other nationalities.
Population Percentages
Han 91.60% Bouyei 0.22%
Zhuang 1.37% Dong 0.22%
Manehu
0.87% Yao 0.19%
Hui 0.76% Korean 0.17%
Miao 0.65% Bai 0.14%
Uighr 0.64% Hani 0.11%
Yi 0.58% Kazak 0.10%
Tujia 0.50% Li 0.10%
Mongol
0.42% Dia 0.09%
Tibetian
0.41% Other 0.86%
Most of the 56 recognized minority groups live in the outer areas of
Inner Mongolia, Xinjiang, Xizang (Tibet), and Yunnan. Many also
live among the Han Chinese in the more affluent central and costal
provinces due to better job opportunities. The minority groups are
a diverse group of Uighurs and Tibetans, Koreans, Mongols, Turks,
Kazaks, Russians, Tartars, Thais, Manchus, Miao , Hui and Zhuang.
The Hui is one of the largest groups, accounting for more than 9
million members, and the Zhuang who account for 16 million.
The Chinese constitution provides the same rights to minorities
as are given to the Han majority. Minorities are guaranteed a
42
quota for representation at the National People’s Congress, and
are sometimes treated more leniently with regard to laws and
regulations. For example, most minorities do not have to adhere to
the one-child per family rule that is enforced on the Han majority.
Their children can get into universities with lower examination
scores than are required of Han students, and model members of
minorities are chosen to fill prominent government posts. Beijing
puts great emphasis on minority relations and promises to promote
more minorities to leading positions.
Maintaining good relationships with some minorities has been a
continuous problem for the Han Chinese. Minority separatism is
a threat to the stability of China. The Tibetans and Uighurs have
East
China
Sea
Yellow
Sea
Sea of
Japan
South China
Sea
Gulf of
Tonking
Bay of
Bengal
Yangtze
Huang He
Xi Jiang
Salween
Mekong
Brahmaputra
Lake
Balkhash
Ozero
Baykal
Luzon
Hainan
Urumqi
Lhasa
Xining
Lanzhou
Yinchuan
Xi'an
Chengdu
Wuhan
Guiyang
Zhengzhou
Shijiazhuang
Tianjin
Hohhot
Taiyuan
Jinan
Hefei
Nanjing
Shanghai
Hangzhou
Nanchang
Changsha
Fuzhou
Guangzhou
Nanning
Kunming
Shenyang
Changchun
Harbin
Haikou
Hailar
Qiqihar
Yantai
Dalian
Qingdao
Xiamen
Chongqing
Golmud
Yumen
Kashi
Yining
Karamay
Shiquanhe
Zhanjiang
Macau(Port.)
Lianyungang
Burqin
Hong Kong
INDIA
NEPAL
BHUTAN
BURMA
LAOS
VIETNAM
THAILAND
PAK.
MONGOLIA
TAJ.
KYRGYZSTAN
KAZAKHSTAN
RUSSIA
NORTH
KOREA
SOUTH
KOREA
JAPA N
PHILIPPINES
TAIWAN
BEIJING
China Ethnic
Composition
National Capital
Han Chinese
Mongolian
Tibeto-Burman
Tu rkic
Spartially Populated
Ethnic Groups
43
volatile relations with the Han Chinese. Tibet and Xinjiang are still
heavily garrisoned by Chinese troops due to violence and protests
that have occurred in the region. These regions provide China with
most of its livestock and hold vast untapped mineral deposits.
The Uighurs seek to create an independent nation state in the
Xinjiang Uighur Autonomous Region. They resent control over
the land that they consider their homeland as well as the policy of
China’s government to populate the area with Han Chinese and
reduce the proportion of Uighurs in the overall population. The
Chinese have attempted to assimilate the Uighur population into
the Han Chinese culture by diluting their culture and identity,
curbing their religions practices, confiscating their property,
and discriminating against them in employment. As a result,
the Uighurs believe their ethnic group’s language, religion,
history and survival is at stake. The Uighurs have participated
Han Chinese Family
44
in bombings, assassinations, armed assaults on government or
organizations, poison, arson, and plotting riots for their cause.
The Tibetans want political independence for Tibet and religious
freedom for its citizens. Tibet first fell under Chinese political
control in the 18
th
century. In 1911, Outer Mongolia and Tibet
seized the opportunity to break away from China. Two years later
the Dalai Lama, the Tibetan people’s spiritual leader, declared
Tibet an independent state.
Tibet was recognized by Great Britain, but China never accept-
ed this declaration. In 1950, Tibet was liberated by the People’s
Liberation Army, but was assured that it would be allowed to con-
tinue administering its internal affairs and that its social system
would be left intact. The Chinese presence in Tibet grew and chal-
lenged Tibetan Buddhism. This led to rising tensions and a re-
Uighur Men
45
volt in 1959 that sent the Dalai
Lama into exile with his gov-
ernment to India. Tibetan op-
position to the Chinese contin-
ued with demonstrations that
were brutally crushed by the
Chinese in 1989.
Family
Family is considered the center
of Chinese social, psychologi-
cal, and ideological lives. In
China, families are typically
small, due to the one-child
policy, but traditionally fam-
ily ties link the branches of the
family over many generations.
In traditional society, land own-
ership and family resources
were passed from father to son.
Parents arranged marriages as
alliances between families rather than individuals. The eldest son
was expected to take care of the parents.
Today in the urban economy married couples do not usually live
with or near the man’s parents, but pay jointly for their own accom-
modations. The choice of marriage is left to the young; however,
family values remain strong. The one-child policy has produced a
generation of men who may never marry because of the male-to-
female ratio. There are approximately 23 million more men than
women. The one child policy has also created a rapidly aging pop-
ulation. The family structure is dwindling from 4-2-1, with one
child responsible for the care of both parents and grandparents.
Tibetan Man
46
Roles of Men and Women
Men are highly valued due to the patriarchal society in China.
Men are considered physically stronger, better educated, more ex-
perienced, more assertive, and dynamic. Generally, men are still
seen as the unofficial head of the household. The women’s chang-
ing role has confused men’s roles to some extent. Some men feel
threatened by it and long for traditional roles, while others accept
the changes. In Chinese society, men should make more money
than women, be better employed, and take care of women.
Marriage among females is near 100 percent. Women usually
marry at a young age. Women are not equal to men, but of a
lower class and hold jobs that are considered “female” jobs.
Approximately 60 percent of service jobs such as secretaries,
waitresses, and shop clerks are held by women. Only 22 percent
of technical and scientific jobs are held by women. Many wives,
rather than husbands, follow tradition by caring for children and
doing housework as well as following socialist practice by keeping
a full-time job. Because women are usually caregivers, shoppers,
and accountants for their family, they must do some errands during
the day; therefore, urban employers view them as unreliable.
The role of women is changing. The state has guaranteed equal em-
ployment opportunities for women and men. The state has worked
adopted a series of policies and measures to ensure that women
can equally participate in the economic development, enjoy equal
access to economic resources and effective services, enhance their
self-development abilities and improve their social and economic
status. In the meantime, governments at all levels are working to
adopt many favorable policies toward women, such as creating
public-welfare jobs, opening employment service centers, spon-
soring special recruitment activities and vocational training cours-
47
es, monitoring employee discrimination against women, and help-
ing women, especially those who are laid-off, to find new jobs.
Education and Literacy Rates
Since the formation of the PRC in 1949, great strides have been
made in basic-level education. Of the population 15 years of age
and older, 91 percent is literate. In 2004 official figures show that
98.9 percent of primary school-age children are enrolled in school,
and of these 98.1 percent go on to junior middle school. Entrance
to high school (a further 3 years of study) is by examination—62.9
percent of students continue on to high school.
Many rural schools are inadequately funded, relying on fees paid
by local families, and there is widespread truancy and absenteeism,
despite a notional 9 years of compulsory education. Education in
poor rural areas is inferior to that found in urban areas, and ex-
tremely poor families often have no choice but to take their chil-
dren out of school because they cannot pay tuition.
University entrance is generally based on merit and is highly
competitive; a national university entrance examination ranks all
students. Less than 10 percent of all people attend college. Students
generally pay tuition themselves or sign a contract with a state
company that will sponsor them. In return, the student must work
for the company for a few years after graduation. Top students
may study abroad or work for multinational corporations.
Language
The different languages in China include Standard Chinese
or Mandarin (Putonghua, based on the Beijing dialect), Yue
(Cantonese), Wu (Shanghaiese), Minbei (Fuzhou), Minnan
(Hokkien-Taiwanese), Xiang, Gan, Hakka dialects. There are
48
seven major Chinese dialects and many sub dialects. Each dia-
lect is unique enough as to be unintelligible to Chinese of other
provinces. Mandarin (or Putonghua), the predominant dialect,
is spoken by more than 70 percent of the population. It is taught
in all schools and is the official language. About two-thirds of
the Han ethnic group are native speakers of Mandarin; the rest,
concentrated in southwest and southeast China, speak one of the
six other major Chinese dialects. Non-Chinese languages spo-
ken widely by ethnic minorities include Mongolian, Tibetan,
Uighur and other Turkic languages (in Xinjiang), and Korean
(in the northeast).
East
China
Sea
Yellow
Sea
Sea of
Japan
South China
Sea
Gulf of
Tonking
Bay of
Bengal
Yangtze
Huang He
Xi Jiang
Salween
Mekong
Brahmaputra
Lake
Balkhash
Ozero
Baykal
Luzon
Hainan
Urumqi
Lhasa
Xining
Lanzhou
Yinchuan
Xi'an
Chengdu
Wuhan
Guiyang
Zhengzhou
Shijiazhuang
Tianjin
Hohhot
Taiyuan
Jinan
Hefei
Nanjing
Shanghai
Hangzhou
Nanchang
Changsha
Fuzhou
Guangzhou
Nanning
Kunming
Shenyang
Changchun
Harbin
Haikou
Hailar
Qiqihar
Yantai
Dalian
Qingdao
Xiamen
Chongqing
Golmud
Yumen
Kashi
Yining
Karamay
Shiquanhe
Zhanjiang
Macau(Port.)
Lianyungang
Burqin
Hong Kong
INDIA
NEPAL
BHUTAN
BURMA
LAOS
VIETNAM
THAILAND
PAK.
MONGOLIA
TAJ.
KYRGYZSTAN
KAZAKHSTAN
RUSSIA
NORTH
KOREA
SOUTH
KOREA
JAPA N
PHILIPPINES
TAIWAN
BEIJING
Language Regions
Capital
Mandarin
Northern
Eastern
Southwestern
Southern
Wu
Gan
Hakka
Ziang
Min
Yu e
Other
Languages
49
Beliefs
Beliefs are a significant part of life for many Chinese, however
China is officially atheist. Chinese culture is primarily influenced
by three streams of human thought: Taoism, Confucianism, and
Buddhism. Although they have separate origins, all three have
been inextricably entwined. Many Chinese practice all three
beliefs simultaneously.
Taoism is considered to be the only indigenous Chinese religion.
It encompasses various gods. The Taoist version of heaven is
ruled by a bureaucracy of deities, similar to the Greek and Roman
pantheons. Although the Jade Emperor rules heaven, there are
hundreds of gods, each of whom people may beseech for help.
Statues, pictures, or temples dedicated to these gods are erected
in homes or villages, where worshippers leave incense and gifts,
usually food, and where they pray. Often the supplicant makes a
promise that he or she must fulfill if the request is granted.
Taoism teaches that yin and yang, the spiritual and material
components of everything in existence, are in constant change.
Yang, the force associated with light, heaven, and activity, mixes
with yin, which is darkness, earth, and inactivity, to make up every
being and object, and to create that object or person’s qi, or life
energy. When a person dies, the yang part of his spirit flies to
heaven, while the yin part resides with the corpse. If not properly
cared for, the part of the spirit that remains becomes a “hungry
ghost” and causes harm to its living descendents.
The Confucianism belief system has served as the backbone of, and
in many ways has defined, Chinese culture for much of its history.
Its flexibility has allowed it to adapt and remain pertinent over a
period of more than 1,000 years. Harmony within relationships
is the goal of Confucianism, which arranges society into five
50
hierarchal relationships. These five relationships include leader-
subject, husband-wife, parent/father-child/son, older brother-
younger brother, and older friend-younger friend. Confucian
portrays an ideal society as a hierarchy, in which everyone knew
his or her proper place and duties. Rulers and State had been taken
for granted, but Confucianists held that rulers had to demonstrate
their fitness to rule by their “merit.” Heredity was an insufficient
qualification for legitimate authority. As practical administrators,
Confucianists came to terms with hereditary kings and emperors
but insisted on their right to educate rulers in the principles of
Confucian thought. Traditional Chinese thought thus combined
a hierarchical social order with an appreciation for education,
individual achievement, and mobility within the rigid structure.
Confucianism obligates the superior to treat the inferior lovingly,
and in practice these relationships are codependent. These
relationships institutionalize behavior through ritual to ensure that
society is harmonious.
Confucianism also emphasizes moral education for males, and
assumes that any man may become a good person if he is diligent
in his studies. Confucianism does not address most spiritual issues,
but it has codified ancestor-worship as part of the required rituals
descendents must perform for their ancestors.
Buddhism came to China from India in the first century A.D. It
became increasingly popular and the most influential religion after
the 4
th
century. It has become as much a part of Han culture as
native Chinese religions. Buddhists believe that after death, souls
are reborn into humans, animals, or plants, and that they receive
a better or worse situation according to their behavior in their
past life. Because of this many Chinese, especially in rural areas,
believe in destiny (yuanfen) as a repercussion of one’s behavior
51
in a former life. This belief emphasizes acceptance of hardship in
this life through a belief that one has earned it.
Islam came to China in the 7
th
century along the Silk Road, and
by the 14th century was integrated into Chinese society. Although
many Muslims in China are ethnically Han, the China government
classifies them as belonging to the Hui (Muslim) ethnic group
because of their faith. Today, Han Chinese may convert to Islam
without officially changing their ethnicity. Their version of Islam
differs little from that found in other Muslim cultures. They
worship in a mosque, called qingzhenshi in Mandarin Chinese,
which literally means the “temple of pure truth.” The leader of the
congregation, called imam in Arabic, is called the ahong among
the Hui, a term that is derived from the Persian word for “teacher.”
Buddhist Temple
52
Because Muslims believe that God’s word was revealed in Arabic,
the Hui use Arabic words when reading the Qur’an, as well as in
prayer and during religious services. They also use many words of
Persian origin when referring to religious concepts.
Catholic influence reached China along the Silk Road in the 6
th
or
7
th
century, but vanished in the Tang Dynasty when the government
persecuted it due to its foreign origins. Catholicism was again
Catholic Church
53
introduced in the 15
th
century by the Jesuits. Although the Jesuits
enjoyed the respect of the imperial court because of their scientific
knowledge, they were not successful in promoting Christianity.
In the mid-19
th
century, however, a large number of Protestant
and Catholic missionaries arrived from Europe and the Americas.
Although they were more successful in converting the Chinese,
their converts became known as “rice Christians” because the Han
believed they joined the church for handouts of food and to gain
protection in legal matters.
Missionaries were at the forefront of medical and educational
reforms in China and trained many of the intellectuals that would
later become leaders. Foreign missionaries gained an unfavorable
reputation, however, because of general Chinese ignorance
about Christianity and popular anger at foreign imperialism in
the 19
th
and early 20
th
centuries. Even today, Christianity has a
negative connotation as a foreign faith. Despite this stigma, both
Catholicism and Protestantism are gaining converts as African,
European, and American missionaries are still active in China in
underground or “house” churches. Because proselytizing is illegal
in the PRC, however, such missionaries must use discretion.
The state does not allow foreigners to control any religious
institutions. It has therefore forbid the Catholic Church from taking
orders from the Pope. Instead, the China government established
a Catholic Church that is independent of the Pope. There is at
least one unauthorized church there that still takes orders from
the Vatican, but its members are subject to arrest by Chinese
authorities. Today, there are approximately 5 million Catholics,
and 15 million Protestants.
Although China’s constitution affirms religious toleration,
the government places restrictions on religious practice other
54
than officially recognized organizations. Only two Christian
organizations—a Catholic church without official ties to Rome
and the “Three-Self-Patriotic” Protestant church—are sanctioned
by the China government. Unauthorized churches have sprung
up in many parts of the country and unofficial religious practice
is flourishing. In some regions authorities have tried to control
activities of these unregistered churches. In other regions, registered
and unregistered groups are treated similarly by authorities and
congregations worship in both types of churches. Most Chinese
Catholic bishops are recognized by the Pope, and official priests
have Vatican approval to administer all the sacraments.
With the popular search for spiritual meaning that emerged in the
1980s, several new religions based on traditional beliefs appeared.
Especially popular is qigong (pronounced “chee gong”), a
practice founded in the 1950s based on Taoism. Advocates claim
that practicing meditation and certain exercises can strengthen a
person’s qi, or life energy, allowing qigong masters to perform
supernatural feats such as flying.
Falun Gong (also called Falun Dafa), another new religious practice
based on qigong, was created in recent years by Li Hongzhi.
Falun Gong is a powerful mechanism for healing, stress, relief,
and health improvements. It is complete with its own system of
principles and empirical techniques. It has a set of five exercises,
three of which involve physical movements and maneuvers
while the other two exercises require remaining still for extended
periods of time. Falun Gong is characterized by the cultivation of
a Falun (law wheel), located at the “dantian” (lower abdomen). As
an intelligent spinning body of high energy substance, the Falun
automatically absorbs energy from the universe and relieves the
body of bad elements. The rotation of Falun synchronizes with
the rotation of the universe. It has the same characteristics as the
55
universe and is a miniature of the universe. The Taoist “Yin and
Yang” and the Buddha’s “Dharma wheel” have their reflections
in the Falun. Falun is constantly rotating, putting the practitioner
in the state of cultivation for 24 hours a day. It gained several
million followers but was banned by the government in 1999.
Many of those arrested were sent to indoctrination prisons, called
labor reform camps (laogai), where some have been tortured and
killed. Today many Chinese see it as a dangerous cult, though an
unknown number continue to practice it secretly.
Recreation
In urban areas leisure is divided among popular activities that
include ballroom dancing, traditional fan dancing, taji quan (called
taichi or shadowboxing in the west), qigong exercises, wushu
(martial arts), basketball, and ping-pong. Among older Chinese,
board games, such as Chinese Chess, are popular. Younger Chinese
in urban areas enjoy video games and internet chat rooms.
Chinese who live in rural areas enjoy horse racing and horseback
riding, polo, wrestling, yak racing, archery, tug-of-war, cycling,
and soccer. In some rural areas and among certain ethnic groups
festivals are an important part of leisure activities. For example, the
Miao ethnic group participates in festivals where popular activities
include professional dancing, ball tossing, dragon boat races,
mountain climbing, horse races, cock fights, and bull fights.
Customs and Courtesies
Hong Kong and Macau differ from mainland China. Hong Kong
and Macau are more modern, but still share some traditional
Chinese culture. The following are specific to mainland China:
56
Status, ego, or self respect is a Chinese cultural foundation. ■
People go to great lengths to avoid being made to look stupid
or being forced to back down in front of others. In cases of
disagreement, Chinese strive for a negotiated settlement that
benefits both parties. Confrontation should be avoided.
When handling paper, use both hands to present and receive.
■
This gesture shows respect.
People don’t often say what they think, but will tell you what
■
they think you want to hear or what will save face for them.
Smiling doesn’t always indicate happiness. Some Chinese
■
will smile when they are embarrassed or worried.
Guanxi
■ (connections) are used to obtain goods or services.
This enables individuals in a competitive society to get what
they want. Exploiting guanxi can lead to corruption.
Negotiating over dinner is common for business deals. Invite
■
the appropriate officials and business partners to dinner;
proposals that seemed impossible hours ago may suddenly
become possible.
Show respect for elders. People on public transportation
■
should offer their seats to the elderly.
Rise when a host or hostess enters the room.
■
Dress conservatively. ■
Do not laugh at others’ mistakes — this is considered offensive. ■
Wait until invited by a host or hostess to begin eating or
■
drinking.
It is not necessary to tip at restaurants. Gratuity is usually
■
included in the bill.
57
Greetings
Chinese people nod or bow slightly when greeting others, though
handshakes are common as well; it is advised to wait for a Chinese
person to extend a hand first to be sure what social convention to
use. Introductions tend to be formal and polite rather than familiar.
An official title should always be used (e.g. Mr., Ms., Dr., General,
etc.). Chinese wives do not take their husbands’ family name;
therefore the correct title would be “Madam” and then her family
name. When one formally visits a large group, the group may ap-
plaud in welcome. The usual response is to applaud in return.
Gestures
Chinese people do not like to be touched by strangers. This is es-
pecially important when dealing with older people or people in
prestigious positions. In addition, one should avoid making ex-
aggerated gestures or using dramatic facial expressions. Chinese
people usually do not use their hands when speaking and may be
distracted by a speaker who does. One should use the open hand to
point at people, place, or object as it is considered less confronta-
tional than using one’s index finger. Members of the same gender
may be seen publicly holding hands, but public displays of affec-
tion among those of opposite genders are generally inappropriate.
Visiting
Visitors are expected to be punctual; lateness or cancellation is a
serious affront. Compliments are appreciated by hosts, but will
be politely denied for modesty’s sake. Shoes are removed when
visiting religious buildings (temples, shrines, or mosques) and
may also be removed in private homes.
58
Gift-giving is against the written law, but the acceptance of such
practice is increasing. Gifts should be wrapped in “lucky” colors of
red, yellow, or pink, and the recipient should open it in private. The
colors of white, black, should be avoided because they symbolize
death. Fruit, flowers, boxes of chocolates, imported good are good
gifts, but money is considered insulting. If one is given a gift, one
should not open it in the presence of the giver. If one is treated to
a banquet, one should reciprocate at a later time.
Clothing
Chinese today most often wear Western-style clothing. The “Mao
suit,” a blue cotton pantsuit, is sometimes worn in rural areas.
Chinese clothing is more formal than American dress. Flip-flops
and shorts are not common.
Travelers to China can wear what is customary for them. Areas
such as Hong Kong, Shanghai, and Beijing are fashion-conscious.
Shorts and T-Shirts are respectable summer wear. Flip-Flops and
sandals are okay. If traveling in the north of China during winter,
prepare properly for the weather.
Food
Rice is the staple of the Chinese diet. Diet differs in each geo-
graphical region, depending on the culture and available food.
Cuisine in northern China, is influenced by the Mongol field
Kitchens with such cuisines as the Mongolian barbecue and
Mongolian hotpot. Mongolian hotpot is a large communal cook-
ing and serving that usually includes meat and vegetables. Wheat
or millet is a popular staple used in steamed dumplings and spring
rolls. Other popular foods include pancakes, spring onions, fer-
mented bean paste, freshwater fish, and chicken.
59
Cuisine along the eastern coast contains an abundance of fish, such
as the silver carp. This area is home to the best soy sauces and rice
wines. Eastern cuisine popularized the use of a wok in stir frying.
Some popular dishes include braised duck and pigeon, steamed tur-
tle and chicken, hot and sour fish soup, stewed pork, and fried eel.
Cuisine found in the western region is spicy due to the use of red
chili. In this region, fresh ingredients are available year round,
however not in the abundance or variety found in the east or south
of the country. Pork, poultry, legumes, soybeans, mushrooms, gar-
lic, ginger and onions are all popular ingredients.
Dishes found in the southern Canton region are more exotic. Dog,
cats, raccoon, monkeys, lizards, and rats are all used in various
dishes. In this region, texture is prized as well as freshness.
MEDICAL ASSESSMENT
Disease Risks to Deployed Personnel
The Armed Forces Medical Intelligence Center (AFMIC) assesses
China as INTERMEDIATE RISK for infectious diseases, with an
overall disease risk that will adversely impact mission effective-
ness unless force health protection measures are implemented.
The following is a summary of the infectious disease risks in
China. More detailed information is available online at http://
www.afmic.detrick.army.mil.
Foodborne and Waterborne Diseases
Sanitation varies with location, but typically is well below U.S.
standards. While Beijing and Shanghai approach Western sanita-
tion standards, local food and water sources (including ice) may
60
be contaminated with pathogenic bacteria, parasites, and viruses
to which most U.S. service members have little or no natural im-
munity. Diarrheal diseases can be expected to temporarily inca-
pacitate a high percentage of personnel within days if local food,
water, or ice is consumed. If personnel are unvaccinated, hepatitis
A and typhoid fever can cause prolonged illness in a smaller per-
centage. Consuming unpasteurized dairy products or raw animal
products increases the risk of diseases such as brucellosis and Q
fever; rare cases may occur in the absence of countermeasures.
Vector-borne Diseases
Ecological conditions support populations of arthropod vectors,
including mosquitoes, ticks, and sand flies, particularly during
warmer months. Japanese encephalitis (JE), dengue fever, and
malaria are the major vector-borne risk in China. Malaria, JE, and
Lyme disease each could potentially affect a small number of per-
sonnel (less than 1 percent per month attack rate) in the absence of
countermeasures. In addition, there are a variety of other vector-
borne diseases occurring at low or unknown levels, which as a
group may constitute a potentially serious operational risk.
Water-contact Diseases
Operations or activities that involve extensive water contact
may result in personnel being temporarily debilitated with
schistosomiasis (in areas south of 35 degrees north latitude) and
leptospirosis in some locations. In addition, bodies of surface
water are likely to be contaminated with human and animal waste.
Activities such as wading or swimming may result in exposures to
enteric diseases such as diarrhea and hepatitis through incidental
ingestion of water. Prolonged water contact also may lead to the
61
development of a variety of potentially debilitating skin conditions
such as bacterial or fungal dermatitis.
Sexually Transmitted Diseases
Carrier rates for hepatitis B are high. HIV/AIDS also occurs
at increasing levels. Though the immediate impact of these
diseases on an operation is limited, the long-term health impact
on individuals is substantial. Gonorrhea, chlamydia, and
other sexually transmitted diseases such as chancroid, herpes,
lymphogranuloma venereum, syphilis, and venereal warts that
often are common in CSWs may affect a high percentage of
personnel who have unprotected sexual contact.
Aerosolized Dust/Soil-contact Diseases
Rare cases of severe hantavirus hemorrhagic fever with renal
syndrome could occur among personnel exposed to dust or
aerosols in rodent-infested areas. Clusters of cases could occur in
groups exposed to areas with very heavy rodent infestation.
Animal-contact Diseases
The risk of rabies in China is assessed as well above the risk in
the United States. Dogs are the main source of human exposures.
Additionally, rare cases of naturally occurring anthrax could occur
among personnel exposed to animals, animal products, or under-
cooked meat.
Respiratory-borne Diseases
In the 2008 WHO publication on Global Tuberculosis Control,
China was classified as a high-burden country, one of the 22 coun-
tries that account for 80 percent of the new tuberculosis (TB) cases
62
worldwide. Annual incidence of active TB cases in 2003 was es-
timated at 99 per 100,000 (compared to the U.S. rate of approxi-
mately 6 per 100,000). Prolonged contact with the local population
may result in conversion rates to tuberculosis skin testing (TST/
PPD screening) that may be elevated over U.S. military baseline.
In addition, deployed U.S. forces may be exposed to a variety of
common respiratory infections in the local population, including
influenza, pertussis, viral upper respiratory infections, viral and
bacterial pneumonia, and others. U.S. military populations living
in close-quarter conditions are at risk for substantial person-to-
person spread of respiratory pathogens.
Highly pathogenic H5N1 avian influenza cases have been identified
in birds and humans in China. Extremely rare cases of human H5N1
avian influenza could occur in operational forces involved in poultry
culling, in the absence of appropriate personal protective measures.
The risk to operational forces not exposed to infected poultry or
contaminated environments remains negligible. In the event that
H5N1 avian influenza gains the ability to efficiently spread directly
from person to person, widespread community transmission would
be difficult to contain, given the amount of travel that occurs
throughout Asia. If global spread results, a significant number of
operational forces worldwide eventually could be affected.
Medical Capabilities
The quality of health care in China varies significantly from one
region to the next. Private facilities, particularly in urban centers
such as Beijing, Shanghai, and other major cities, provide the
country’s best quality care. Rural health care falls short of Western
standards as well as Chinese standards. Trained physicians and
pharmacies are available in most provincial hospitals.
63
The Ministry of Health (MOH) in Beijing operates China’s larg-
est health-care network and is responsible for directing policy,
implementing and coordinating health institutions, and supervis-
ing preventive services, medical education, and medical facilities.
Historically, China’s military medical capability has been supe-
rior to that in the civilian sector, but recent demobilization efforts
have outsourced certain medical assets to civilian authorities. The
impact that this has had on the military or civilian healthcare sys-
tem is unknown. China’s Center for Disease Control and some
nongovernmental organizations also participate in enhancing the
overall health system.
MOH hospitals are classified into three levels. Each level is further
subdivided into three or four classes. Level III is the national level;
these hospitals have more than 500 beds and provide health care,
public health, teaching, and research services. There are about 1,000
level-III hospitals and about 13,000 level-II hospitals. Western-
style medical facilities with international staffs are available in
Beijing, Guangzhou, Shanghai, and a few other large cities. Many
other hospitals in major Chinese cities have so-called VIP wards
that often have well-trained, English-speaking staff. Cultural and
regulatory difficulties may impede care in more remote facilities.
Rural clinics are usually reluctant to accept responsibility for
treating foreigners, even in emergencies.
Although China reportedly has 1.4 million doctors, their
qualifications vary widely. China’s elite medical professionals
have been Western-trained and often speak English, but they are
limited in number and cannot meet the needs of China’s immense
population. Previously, doctors underwent generic training;
however, in the past decade, specialty training has become a priority.
Overall, the quality of doctors is below Western standards.
64
Much of China’s pharmaceutical supply is suspect. Pharmacies often
provide medications with the wrong dosages, past expiration dates,
mislabeled contents, or improper handling. Except for joint venture
companies that produce drugs for export, manufacturing procedures
do not adhere to Western manufacturing practice standards.
Despite new regulations and shutting down illegal blood stations,
China’s blood banks still lack adequate storage, appropriate testing
equipment, properly trained personnel, and reliable donor pools.
The quality of China’s emergency medical services is fair. Beijing
has been reorganizing its emergency medical response system
but still lacks the equipment and personnel to support a modern
program. The ambulance service is generally unreliable, lacks
sophisticated medical equipment, and rarely has personnel with
medical training. Air medical evacuation assets are extremely
limited, expensive, and usually reserved for VIPs and dignitaries;
however, the aircraft tend to have adequate medical staff onboard
during evacuations. If necessary, SOS International, Ltd, provides
medical evacuation and medical escort services in Beijing,
Nanjing, Shekou, and Tianjin, as well as 24-hour Alarm Centers
in Beijing and Shanghai. For medical emergencies anywhere in
mainland China, U.S. personnel can call the Alarm Center in
Beijing at (86-10) 6462-9100 or Shanghai (86-21) 6295-0099.
China’s equivalent to dialing 911 is 110 for police, 119 for fire,
120 for ambulance/rescue, and 122 to report a traffic accident.
Key Medical Facilities
PLA General Hospital (aka PLA 301 Hospital)
Coordinates 39-54-09N 116-16-10E
Location 28 Fuxing Road, Fengtai District, Beijing
Telephone (86) 10-68182255
65
Type Military; 1,500 beds
Capabilities
Full range of medical and surgical specialties; car-
diology, emergency medicine, orthopedic surgery,
ear/nose/throat (ENT), computer tomography (CT)
scanner, magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), ultra-
sound, x-ray, blood bank, cardiac care unit (CCU),
emergency room-24 hours, helipad, intensive care
unit (ICU), laboratory, operating room, pharmacy.
Comments Probably the best People’s Liberation Army (PLA)
general hospital. Provides outpatient and inpatient
treatment to senior PLA and political leaders.
Peking Union Medical College Hospital (Capital Hospital)
Coordinates 39-54-37N 116-24-34E
Location 1 Shuaifu Yuan Street, Wangfujing District, Beijing
Telephone 512-7733, 512-5625 emergency 512-7733
Type Civilian/public, 1,200 beds
Capabilities Full range of medical and surgical specialties; OB/
GYN, CT scanner, hemodialysis unit, MRI, ra-
dioisotope facility, ultrasound, x-ray, ambulance,
blood bank, CCU, emergency room-24 hour, ICU,
lab, operating rooms, pharmacy, trauma unit.
Comments The hospital is technologically strong; its staff is
competent and has a good background in English.
It is one of the best hospitals practicing Western
medicine in China and a top hospital in Beijing and
nationwide. It has a separate clinic for foreigners.
Sino-Japanese Friendship Hospital
Coordinates 39-58-21N 116-25-12E
Location Yinghua East Road, He Ping Li District, Beijing
Telephone 422-1122
66
Type Government; 1,300 beds
Capabilities
Full range of medical and surgical specialties; den-
tistry, oncology, CT scanner, hemodialysis unit,
MRI, ultrasound, x-ray, ambulance, blood bank,
burn unit, emergency room-24 hours, helipad, ICU,
lab, operating rooms, pharmacy, trauma unit.
Comments Well-equipped state-of-the-art teaching facility.
The U.S. Embassy health unit routinely uses its x-
ray services and recommends this facility for care
in an emergency.
Hua Shan Hospital
Coordinates 31-13-05N 121-26-15E
Location No. 12 Urumqi Zhong Road, Shanghai
Telephone 86 21 6248
Type Civilian; 1,000 beds
Capabilities Full range of medical and surgical specialties; car-
diology, dentistry, dermatology, endocrinology,
gastroenterology, hematology, infectious diseases,
nephrology, nephrology, neurology, nuclear medi-
cine, occupational medicine, oncology, physical
medicine and rehabilitation, radiology, anesthesia,
neurosurgery, oral surgery, ophthalmology, ortho-
pedic surgery, ENT, thoracic surgery, urology, CT
scanner, EEG, MRI, ultrasound, endoscope, litho-
tripter, surgical laser.
Comments One of the largest and oldest Western hospital in
southern China. A major medical teaching facility.
Best hospital in the city. Recommended for use by
Embassy personnel.
67
Second Military Medical University Number 2
Coordinates 31-14-05N 121-27-46E
Location 415 Fengyang Road, near intersection of Nanjing
and Chengdu Roads, Shanghai
Type Military; 980 beds
Capabilities Full range of medical and surgical specialties;
emergency medicine, gastroenterology, hematol-
ogy, infectious diseases, nephrology, orthopedic
surgery, urology, CT scanner, MRI, oxygen, x-ray,
blood bank, emergency room-24 hours, helipad,
lab, operating rooms pharmacy, trauma unit.
Comments One of the largest and best known hospitals in
China. Treats high-ranking cadres of the PLA.
United Family Hospital
Coordinates 39-58-22N 116-28-46E
Location 2 Jiang Tai Lu, Chaoyang District, Beijing
Telephone 86 10 6433 3960
Type Private; 50 beds
Capabilities Full range of medical and surgical specialties;
cardiology, dentistry, dermatology, emergency
medicine-24 hours, pediatrics, physical medicine
and rehabilitation, psychiatry, public health, radi-
ology, anesthesia, OB/GYN, orthopedic surgery,
ENT, pediatric surgery, urology, ECG, ultrasound,
ambulance, blood bank-24 hours, ICU, laboratory,
operating rooms, pharmacy, respiratory therapy.
Comments The level of care is on par with Western standards.
Open source indicates this hospital is the first and
remains the only foreign-invested full service in-
ternational-standard hospital operating in Beijing.
68
HISTORY
Dynastic Period
China is the world’s oldest continuous major civilization; records
date back 3,500 years. Successive imperial dynasties developed a
system of bureaucratic control that gave the agrarian-based Chinese
an advantage over neighboring nomadic and hill tribe cultures.
Chinese civilization was further strengthened by the development
of a Confucian state ideology and a common written language that
bridged distinct localities and dialects. Whenever China was con-
quered by nomadic tribes, as it was by the Mongols in the 13th cen-
tury, the conqueror sooner or later adopted the ways of the “higher”
Chinese civilization and staffed the bureaucracy with Chinese.
Following a series of dynasties, the last imperial dynasty, the Qing
(Ch’ing), began in 1644, when the Manchus overthrew the Ming
dynasty. The Manchus continued their conquest over the next half-
century and gained control of peripheral regions such as Xinjiang,
Yunnan, Tibet, Mongolia, and Taiwan. The success of the early
Qing period was attributed to the Manchus’ military prowess in
combination with Chinese bureaucratic skills.
The 19
th
century saw the Qing dynasty’s eventual decline. Internally,
China was beset by large-scale rebellions, economic recession,
and an explosive population growth. It was during this time China
faced the Taiping rebellion (1851-64). The consequences of this
rebellion were devastating. During the Taiping rebellion, which
lasted 20 years, almost 30 million people died as a direct result
from the conflict. Externally, the Qing faced encroaching Western
powers. The Sino-British Opium Wars and subsequent military de-
feats against foreign powers showed the impotence of the Chinese
military and exacerbated domestic dissatisfaction. Although the
69
Qing emperor and other leaders promoted adoption of Western
technology to strengthen China, they were prevented by dominant
conservative bureaucrats who feared an erosion of their political
power from such reforms. In 1900, the Boxer Uprising occurred.
This was a Chinese nationalist revolt against foreigners, who were
considered representative of alien powers, and Chinese Christians.
The Qing dynasty continued its decline until 1911 when it was
finally overthrown.
While the Chinese entered into conflict with Europe and European
culture during the Opium War and after, it was also disturbed by a
number of rebellions in mid-century.
Early 20th Century China
In 1911, reformist bureaucrats, military officers, and students
overthrew the Qing dynasty. However, the resultant Republic of
China did not last. The first Chinese president, military leader
Yuan Shikai, attempted to name himself emperor, but his death in
1916 left the republican government weak and dependent on other
military leaders.
Dr. Sun Yat-Sen, whose revolutionary ideas inspired the first revo-
lution, established a base of support in southern China in the early
1920s and set out to unite the fragmented nation. With Soviet as-
sistance, he organized the Kuomintang (KMT or the “Nationalist
Party”) along Stalinist lines and allied himself with the fledgling
Chinese Communist Party (CCP). Ostensibly, both parties were
to work for China’s reunification. Sun’s death in 1925 led to the
rise of military leader Chiang Kai-Shek in the KMT, who was
successful in bringing most of south and central China under the
KMT’s rule. In 1927, Chiang betrayed the CCP and assassinat-
ed many of its leaders. Continued KMT persecution forced the
70
CCP to flee in what became
known as the “Long March”
to northwest China’s Yan’an
city in Shaanxi province; the
CCP established a guerrilla
base in Yan’an. It was during
this Long March that many of
communist China’s first gener-
ation of leaders would emerge
—
notably Mao Zedong (Mao
Tse-tung).
Although the KMT and the
CCP agreed to unite in 1937
to oppose the Japanese invad-
ers, their struggle continued
throughout the 14-year long
Japanese invasion (1931-45). The end of WWII marked the re-
sumption of civil war. Although the United States supported the
KMT with military aid and airlifted KMT troops to occupy stra-
tegic cities, incompetence and corruption in the KMT prevented
it from effectively controlling China. By 1949, the CCP had oc-
cupied most of China and forced the KMT to flee to Taiwan.
The People’s Republic of China
On 1 October 1949, Mao Zedong proclaimed the founding of the
People’s Republic of China. With significant aid from the Soviet
Union, China undertook a massive economic and social recon-
struction. Simultaneously, the CCP’s authority intruded into al-
most every facet of Chinese life. The CCP maintained control
through its large and loyal military force and a responsive govern-
ment apparatus.
Chairman Mao Zedong
71
The “Great Leap Forward”
In 1958, Mao broke from the Soviet model and announced a new
economic program called the Great Leap Forward. This program
aimed to rapidly raise industrial and agricultural production by
taking advantage of China’s massive human capital. Large com-
munes were formed, and each family was to contribute to produc-
tion by having small, “backyard steel furnaces” and working on
the communal farm.
The results were disastrous. Agricultural output declined drasti-
cally as farmers gave up farming time for industrial production.
The furnaces turned useful metal tools into scrap. Within a year,
starvation became more prevalent in even fertile agricultural ar-
eas. From 1960 to 1961, the combination of poor planning during
the Great Leap Forward and bad weather resulted in a famine that
killed nearly 30 million.
The Great Proletarian Cultural Revolution
In the early 1960s, State President Liu Shaoqi and his protégé,
Party General Secretary Deng Xiaoping, adopted pragmatic eco-
nomic policies to resuscitate China’s economy from the disastrous
Great Leap Forward. These policies relied on market mechanisms
and the use of professionals and were contrary to Mao’s revolution-
ary vision of absolute socialism and egalitarianism. Although the
policies improved economic growth and raised standards of living,
Mao became increasingly dissatisfied with China’s new direction.
In 1966, as the CCP Chairman, Mao launched a massive political
attack on Liu, Deng, and other pragmatists. Beginning with gov-
ernment-sponsored student protests, this movement, known as the
“Great Proletarian Cultural Revolution,” was novel in that a faction
of the Chinese communist leadership sought to rally popular op-
position in an ideological attack against other communist leaders.
72
In the early stages of the
Cultural Revolution, Mao and
his “closest comrade in arms,”
National Defense Minister Lin
Biao, charged Liu, Deng, and
other top party leaders with
dragging China back toward
capitalism. Radical youth orga-
nizations, called Red Guards,
attacked party and state orga-
nizations at all levels, seeking
out leaders who would not
bend to the radical wind. In re-
action to this turmoil, some lo-
cal People’s Liberation Army
(PLA) commanders and other
officials maneuvered to outwardly back Mao and the radicals
while actually taking steps to rein in local radical activity. China
became even more isolated internationally as diplomats were re-
called to undergo “political re-education,” and those that remained
incited communist revolutions in foreign countries.
Gradually, Red Guard and other radical activity subsided, and
the Chinese political situation stabilized along complex factional
lines. The leadership conflict came to a head in September 1971,
when Party Vice Chairman and Defense Minister Lin Biao report-
edly tried to stage a coup against Mao; Lin Biao allegedly later
died in a plane crash in Mongolia.
In the aftermath of the Lin Biao incident, many officials criticized
and dismissed from 1966-69 were reinstated. Chief among these
was Deng Xiaoping, who reemerged in 1973 and was confirmed
Deng Xiaoping
73
in 1975 in the concurrent posts of Politburo Standing Committee
member, PLA Chief of Staff, and Vice Premier.
The ideological struggle between more pragmatic, veteran par-
ty officials and the radicals re-emerged with a vengeance in late
1975. Mao’s wife, Jiang Qing, and three close Cultural Revolution
associates (later dubbed the “Gang of Four”) launched a media
campaign against Deng. In January 1976, Premier Zhou Enlai,
popular political figure, died of cancer. On 5 April, Beijing citi-
zens staged a spontaneous demonstration in Tiananmen Square
in Zhou’s memory, with strong political overtones of support for
Deng. The authorities forcibly suppressed the demonstration.
Deng was blamed for the disorder and stripped of all official posi-
tions, although the retained his party membership.
The Post-Mao Era
Mao’s death in 1976; his demise started a scramble for succession.
Per Mao’s will, former Minister of Pubic Security Hua Guofeng
was quickly confirmed as Party Chairman and Premier. A month
after Mao’s death, Hua, backed by the PLA, arrested and incar-
cerated Jiang Qing and other leaders for plotting a coup against
the government. After extensive deliberations, the CCP leadership
reinstated Deng Xiaoping to all of his previous posts at the 11th
Party Congress in August 1977. Deng then led the effort to place
government control in the hands of veteran party officials who op-
posed the radical excesses of the previous two decades.
The new, pragmatic leadership under Deng Xiaoping emphasized
economic development and avoided mass political movement.
At the pivotal December 1978 Third Plenum (of the 11th Party
Congress Central Committee), the leadership adopted economic
reform policies aimed at expanding rural income and incentives,
encouraged experiments in enterprise autonomy, reduced central
74
planning, and promoted direct foreign investment in China. The
plenum also accelerated the pace of legal reform, culminating in
the passage of several new legal codes by the National People’s
Congress in June 1979.
After 1979, the Chinese leadership adopted more pragmatic ap-
proaches in almost all fields. Artists, writers, and journalists were
encouraged to criticize society’s ills, although open attacks on
party authority were not permitted. In late 1980, Mao’s Cultural
Revolution was officially proclaimed a catastrophe. Hua Guofeng,
who favored Mao’s economic policies, was replaced as Premier in
1980 by reformist Sichuan party chief Zhao Ziyang. Hua’s posi-
tion as the CCP’s General Secretary was given to an even more re-
formist Communist Youth League chairman Hu Yaobang in 1981.
Reform policies greatly improved living standards, especially for
urban workers and farmers who took advantage of opportunities to
sell goods in the open market. Literature and the arts blossomed,
and Chinese intellectuals established extensive links with scholars
in other countries. Reforms also brought out socioeconomic prob-
lems such as inflation, massive urban migration, and prostitution.
Political dissent also increased as people took advantage of the
loosening political atmosphere to stage protests against the slow
pace of reform.
In 1986, student protests were large enough to confirm the party
elders’ fear that reform was leading to social instability and that, if
not stopped, would return China to the chaotic days of the Cultural
Revolution. The party elders suppressed the demonstrators and re-
moved party leaders such as Hu Yaobang who advocated radical
reform. Li Peng and Zhao Ziyang became the new premier and
general secretary, respectively.
75
Student Movement, Tiananmen Square
Deng’s second protégé, Zhao Ziyang was a reformer. However, the
policies of rapid economic and political reform he had championed
were attacked by conservatives. His proposal in May 1988 to ac-
celerate price reform led to widespread popular complaints about
rampant inflation and gave opponents of rapid reform the opening
to call for greater centralization of economic controls and stricter
prohibitions against Western influence. This precipitated a political
debate that escalated through the winter of 1988-89.
The death of the popular reformer, Hu Yaobang, on 15 April 1989,
coupled with growing economic hardship caused by high inflation
and rampant corruption, provided the basis for large-scale protests
by students, intellectuals, and dissatisfied urbanites.
Pro-democracy Student Protest
76
University students and other
Beijing citizens camped at
Tiananmen Square to mourn
Hu’s death and to protest those
who slowed reform. Their pro-
tests called for an end to offi-
cial corruption and for defense
of freedoms guaranteed by the
Chinese Constitution. The dem-
onstration grew despite govern-
ment efforts to contain it. At the
height of the protest movement,
students staged hunger strikes
and refused to be dissuaded
by top government officials.
Protests also spread through
many other cities, including
Shanghai and Guangzhou.
Fearing social instability,
Beijing declared martial law on 20 May 1989, and the demonstra-
tions were declared “counter revolutionary.” On the evening of 3
June and early morning of 4 June, military units were brought into
Beijing, and armed force was authorized to clear the demonstra-
tors from the streets. There were no official estimates of casual-
ties, but most observers believe that they numbered more than 200.
Despite international outrage, the central government proceeded
to eliminate the remaining sources of organized opposition.
Following the conservative resurgence in the protest’s after-
math, economic reform slowed until given new impetus by Deng
Xiaoping’s dramatic visit to the special economic zones in south-
ern China in early 1992. Deng’s renewed propulsion for a mar-
Student-led Hunger Strike
77
ket-oriented economy received official sanction at the 14th Party
Congress later in the year as a number of younger, reform-minded
leaders began their rise to top positions. Deng and his supporters
argued that managing the economy in a way that increased liv-
ing standards should be China’s primary policy objective, even
if capitalist measures were adopted. Subsequent to the visit, the
Communist Party Politburo publicly issued an endorsement of
Deng’s policies of economic openness. Though not completely
eschewing political reform, China has consistently placed over-
whelming priority on the reform and opening of its economy.
Third Generation Leaders
Deng’s health deteriorated in the years prior to his death in 1997.
During that time, President Jiang Zemin and other members of his
generation such as Li Peng and Zhu Rongji gradually assumed
control of the day-to-day functions of government. This “third
generation” leadership governed collectively with President Jiang
at the center. In March 1998, Jiang was re-elected president during
the 9th National People’s Congress. Premier Li Peng became the
chairman of the National People’s Congress. Former Vice Premier
Zhu Rongji was selected to replace Li as premier. Under Jiang, the
leadership was less of a dictatorship and more of an oligarchy ran
by a few elites. Decisions were the outcome of debate and com-
promise between Jiang and other senior leaders, most importantly
the former premier, Li Peng.
The third generation of China’s leaders was firmly committed to
economic reform and opening to the outside world. It has identi-
fied reform of state industries as a government priority, and seems
intent on privatization of unprofitable state-owned enterprises.
The leadership has also reduced government bureaucracy, the
78
number in its active military force, and the commercial enterpris-
es that the government owns.
Fourth Generation Leaders
President Jiang retired as CCP
general secretary at the party’s
16th National Congress in
November 2002 and as state
president at the annual meet-
ing of the full NPC in March
2003. He was replaced in both
positions by Hu Jintao. At the
same time Li Peng and Zhu
Rongji also retired, and were
succeeded as head of the NPC
and premier by Wu Bangguo
and Wen Jiabao.
Hu Jintao made rapid progress in consolidating his position
as China’s “core” leader. In the early months of 2003,
China faced the highly contagious disease, Severe Acute
Respiratory Syndrome (SARS). The government initially
attempted to cover up the disease, but was undermined when
news of the disease spread. The government came clean and
SARS quickly became the government’s top priority. On 24
June, the World Health Organization declared China SARS-
free and only a handfull of cases have been reported since.
China’s success in October 2003 in becoming only the third
country in the world to undertake a manned space mission
boosted the regime’s popularity.
President Hu Jinato
79
Hu Jintao has worked to modernize the military. Hu had little
military experience before taking the CMC chair in September
of 2003, but wasted no time imposing his stamp on the PLA
as well as the paramilitary People’s Armed Police (PAP). Hu
is directly responsible for security, military and foreign affairs.
The energetic leader has taken more of a hands-on-approach to
defense matters than his predecessor. Hu masterminded a series
of changes in military establishment and earmarked more funds
for the procurement of weapons. Hu has moved the PLA from
a defense force whose primary purpose was to prevent other
countries from occupying China, to a military that is becoming
a regional power.
Taiwan
In 1949 nationalist Kumintag (KMT) regime was driven out
of China and into Taiwan by the communist forces. In recent
years relations between Taiwan and China have been tense.
China maintains a “one China” policy viewing Taiwan not as
s sovereign nation, but as an integral part of China. Taiwan,
which has its own flag and local government, has gradually
moved toward formal independence. China has taken various
attempts to keep Taiwan in line such as increasing the number
of short-range ballistic missiles aimed at Taiwan and increasing
interdependence. The KMT regime ran the Republic of China
until 2000 when Chen Shui-bian, a member of the opposing
Democratic Progressive Party (DPP), was elected /president.
President Chen Shui-bian has pushed for Constitution changes.
President Chen Shui-bian has stated that the new constitution
will not include contents concerning sovereignty, territory,
and unification/independence. In this process of preparing the
new constitution, people of every sector of society, including
80
opposition parties, academic society, and legal community,
are to be involved. China remains wary of any use of political
referendums though Taiwan’s government has not indicated that
it will pursue a referendum on independence.
Mawei
Fuzhou
P'utian
Quanzhou
Amoy
(Xiamen)
Chinmen
Yangmingshan
Fenglin
Kuanshan
Hengchun
Fangliao
Chunghsinghsints'un
Suao
Tanshui
Chilung
Panchiao
Taoyuan
Hsinchu
Ilan
Miaoli
Fengyuan
Taichung
Changhua
Hualien
Nant'ou
Touliu
Chia-i
Hsin-ying
Tai-nan
Pingtung
Fengshan
Kaohsiung
Makung
Taitung
TAIPEI
East China
Sea
Formosa Strait
Pacific
Ocean
M
i
n
P’enghu Shuitao
Ta-Chang Hsi
Choshui Hsi
Choshui
Tanshui Kang
Kaop’ing
Tungyin Ta o
Liang Ta o
Peikant'and Ta o
Matsu Ta o
Paich'uan Liehtao
Wuch'iu Hsu
Quemoy
Pescadore
Islands
Liuch'lu Yu
Lu Yu
Lu Ta o
P'engchia Yu
CHINA
120°
122°
26°
24°
22°
118°
Taiwan
National Capital
County Capital
City
Road
Railroad
International Boundary
Port
Airfield
0 75 km
0
50 mi
25
25
50
Taiwan
81
Chronology of Key Events
21st-16th
Century B.C.
China’s first dynasty, the Xia, established
16th – 2nd
Century B.C.
China’s first historic dynasty, the Shang, forms
A.D. 1911 Dynastic period ends with the Qing Dynasty
1839-42 Opium War
1851-64 Taiping Rebellion
1900 Boxer Uprising
1911-15 Provisional Republican Government of China
4 May 1919 May Fourth Movement—intellectuals against the
traditional Confucian philosophy.
1915-28 Warlord era and the rise of the Kuomintang
1931 Japan invades China, sets up a puppet state in
Manchuria, and continues the invasion
1934-35 Long March of the CCP
1945-49 Civil War
1949 Founding of the People’s Republic of China;
Nationalists flee to the island of Taiwan and con-
tend it is the sole representative of China
1950-53 Korean War; PRC sends “volunteer” armies to
counter UN/U.S. offensive
1958 Great Leap Forward
1962 Sino-Indian border clash
1964 China detonates its own atomic bomb
1966 Cultural Revolution begins and ends in 1976 with
the death of Mao Zedong
1969 Sino-Soviet border clashes
82
1976 Chairman Mao Zedong dies
1979 U.S. recognizes the PRC; only unofficial relations
with Taiwan, and passes the Taiwan Relations Act
1979 Sino-Vietnamese border clashes
1979-89 Acute cycles of economic overheating and stag-
nation; rising economic inequalities
June 1989 Student protests and Tiananmen Square Massacre
1992 Deng Xiaoping revives economic reform with a
trip to southern China, promoting rapid economic
growth
1 July 1997 Hong Kong reverts to China
20 Dec 1999 Macau reverts to China
June 2001 China, Russia and four Central Asian states
launch the Shanghai Cooperation Organization
Nov 2001 China joins the World Trade Organization
Nov 2002 Vice-President Hu Jintao is named head of ruling
Communist Party
March 2003 Hu Jintao is elected president
March –
April 2003
China and Hong Kong are hit by the pneumonia-
like SARS virus
June 2003 Hong Kong is declared free of SARS. The World
Health Organization lifts its SARS related travel
warning for Beijing
Oct 2003 China’s first manned spacecraft is sent into space
Aug 2005 China and Russia conduct first joint military
exercise
Oct 2005 China conducts its second manned space flight
83
GOVERNMENT AND POLITICS
Government
National Level
China’s national government is communist, and does not tolerate
opposition to the Chinese Communist Party’s (CCP) monopoly
on political power. Although the PRC’s constitution allows for
multiple political parties, they are organized under an umbrella
ruled by the CCP. This concept of channeling dissenting opinions
through internal organs of the CCP is called “democratic socialism”
and strengthens the CCP’s political power. The CCP has more
NPC
Central Military
Commission
Central Committee
Central Commission
for Discipline
Inspection
People’s
Liberation Army
Political Bureau
“Politburo”
Standing Committee
Secretariat
Provincial, Municipal,
and Local Party
Committees
Policy Direction
Elects
Communist Party Structure
84
than 70 million members. There are eight minor political parties
in China, but their role in the government is minimal.
The CCP is authoritarian in structure and ideology. Nevertheless,
China’s population, geographical vastness, and social diversity
present significant obstacles. With the onset of economic reform
and openness in the 1980s, central government leaders must
increasingly build consensus for new policies among party
members, local and regional leaders, influential non-party
members, and the population at large.
The influence of people and organizations outside the formal
party structure has increased, particularly in the economic realm.
This is readily apparent in the rapidly developing coastal region.
Nevertheless, the CCP sees to it that non-party members do not
create autonomous organizations that could challenge party rule.
Party control is the tightest in central government offices and in
urban economic, industrial, and cultural settings; it is considerably
less controlling in the rural areas.
The government’s primary organs are the National People’s
Congress (NPC), the president, and the state council. The
president and vice president are elected by the NPC. The term
of office for the president and vice president is 5 years. No more
than two consecutive 5-year terms can be served. The president,
in accordance with decisions taken by the NPC, appoints and
removes the premier, the vice premiers, state counselors, ministers,
and other high ranking officials.
The NPC is the highest organ of state power. It meets annually
for approximately 2 weeks to review and approve major new
policy, directives, laws, the budget, and major personnel changes.
These initiatives are presented to the NPC for consideration by
the State Council after previous endorsement by the CCP Central
85
Committee.
Although the NPC generally approves State Council
policy and personnel recommendations, various NPC committees
hold active debates in closed sessions, during which changes may
be made to accommodate alternate views. When the NPC is not in
session, its permanent organ, the Standing Committee, exercises
state power.
After the Cultural Revolution, China’s leaders tried to develop
a legal system to restrain abuses of official authority and
revolutionary excesses. Since 1979, when the drive to establish
a functioning legal system began, more than 300 laws and
regulations have been promulgated, most in the economic arena.
In 1982, the NPC adopted a state constitution that emphasized
the rule of law under which even party leaders are theoretically
held accountable.
National Party Congress in Beijing
86
Legal reform continued in the 1990s, with legislation designed to
modernize and professionalize the nation’s lawyers, judges, and
prisons. The 1994 Administrative Procedure Law allows citizens to
sue officials for abuse of authority. In addition, criminal laws were
amended to introduce significant reforms, to include abolishing
the crime of “counterrevolutionary” activity.
The Chinese constitution and laws also provide for fundamental
human rights, including due process, but these are often ignored
or not enforced. There is a shortage of lawyers in the PRC.
National People’s
Congress
President
Vice President
Supreme People’s
Court
NPC Committees
Supreme People’s
Procuratorate
State Council OfficesPremier, VP, State
Commissions Ministries Agencies
Banks
Provincial, County, Municipal,
and Local Governments
Chinese
Communist Party
InstitutionsCouncilors
Chinese People’s Political Consultative Congress
87
Local Level
China has 31 governments at the provincial level, 22 of which are
provinces; 4 are city governments (Beijing, Tianjin, Chongqing,
and Shanghai); and 5 are autonomous regions. The autonomous
regions consist mostly of ethnic minorities.
Provincial governments implement local laws, regulations,
and decisions of the provincial people’s congress. Provincial
governments have the power to exercise unified leadership over
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Provincial Government
88
the work of governments in cities, counties, townships, and towns
under their jurisdiction.
Politics
Foreign Relations
Since its establishment, the PRC has worked vigorously to win
international recognition as the sole legitimate government of China.
By the early 1970s, the PRC was recognized diplomatically by most
world powers. Beijing assumed the China seat in the UN in 1971
and became increasingly active in multilateral organizations. Japan
established diplomatic relations with China in 1972, and the United
States in 1979. Today, 167 countries have established diplomatic
relations with Beijing; 23 have diplomatic relations with Taiwan.
Asia
In recent years, China has sought a higher profile in the UN through
its permanent seat on the UN Security Council. Closer to home,
China has made efforts to reduce tensions in Asia. China has con-
tributed to stability on the Korean Peninsula by hosting and partici-
pating in the Six-Party Talks, and has cultivated a more cooperative
relationship with members of the Association of Southeast Asian
Nations (ASEAN, which includes Brunei, Burma, Indonesia, Laos,
Malaysia, Philippines, Singapore, Thailand, Vietnam). China’s
move to play a greater leadership role in Asia and the success of its
“charm offensive” in Southeast Asia are examples of a new, more
mature diplomacy that China has adopted. China is also work-
ing hard to strengthen ties with countries in South Asia, including
India. China has likewise improved ties with Russia. Presidents
Putin and Jiang signed a Treaty of Friendship and Cooperation
in July 2001. China also joined with the Central Asian nations of
Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, and Uzbekistan to establish
89
the Shanghai Cooperation Organization (SCO) in June 2001. The
SCO is designed to promote regional stability and cooperate to
combat terrorism in the region.
China still has numerous border and maritime disputes, including
with Vietnam in the Gulf of Tonkin, with a number of countries
in the South China Sea, and with Japan and India. Beijing has re-
solved many of these disputes, most notably the 1997 agreement
with Russia that resolved almost all outstanding border issues
with Russia, and a 2000 agreement with Vietnam to resolve some
differences over their maritime border. However, disagreements
remain over the Paracel Islands in the South China Sea that com-
prise 130 small coral islands that are occupied by China. In 1997,
China announced plans to open the Paracel Islands for tourism.
North Korea
North Korea is one of China’s traditional allies—PLA soldiers
fought alongside North Korean forces in the Korean war of the
early 1950s. However, China has become increasingly impatient
with its neighbor’s provocative behavior and condemned North
Korea’s nuclear bomb test in October 2006 as a flagrant violation
of the wishes of the international community. Since 2003 China
has supported efforts to reduce nuclear tensions on the Korean
peninsula through the six-party talks. The six-party talks include
China, Russia, the U.S., South Korea, Japan, and North Korea.
China’s participation is seen as one aspect of its efforts to adopt
a more prominent role in regional diplomacy, but it also reflects
improving ties with South Korea and the United States.
Japan
China’s relationship with Japan is fragile. The tension between
China and Japan is based on the atrocities committed by the
90
Japanese army during its invasion of China in the 1930s. Beijing
claims that Japan has never made proper amends for these acts.
The relationship was further strained due to repeated visits by
Japan’s former Prime Minister, Junichiro Koizumi, to the Yasakuni
Shrine. The shrine honors Japan’s war dead, including 14 people
judged as war criminals. In 2005, anti-Japanese riots broke out
after Japanese officials approved a school textbook said to play
down wartime atrocities. Chinese leaders refused to meet Japanese
leaders in 2005.
There is also a growing military and economic rivalry between
China and Japan. Japan is concerned with China’s military build
up and natural resource competition. Tokyo and Beijing have been
quarreling over undersea gas deposits and ownership of some is-
lets in East Asia. China is also concerned by a tightening U.S.
– Japan security alliance and U.S. encouragement of a greater re-
gional and global role for Japan.
United States
In 1979, the United States recognized the government of the
People’s Republic of China as the sole legal government of China,
and acknowledged the Chinese position that there is one China, and
Taiwan is part of China. In April 1979, President Carter signed the
Taiwan Relations Act, which provided a domestic legal framework
for the conduct of unofficial relations with Taiwan. Since then, the
United States has maintained unofficial relations with Taiwan.
Following its withdrawal of Taiwan recognition, the United States
terminated its Mutual Defense Treaty with Taiwan. Despite this,
the United States continued to provide for Taiwan’s defense by
selling U.S. military equipment to Taiwan. The United States re-
mains committed to preserving Taiwan’s security.
91
The United States also has good political and economic relation-
ships with Taiwan. It supports Taiwan’S membership in interna-
tional organizations that do not require statehood. The United States
has encouraged Taiwan’s expanding trends toward democracy.
Relations between the United States and China are relatively
positive, but have been strained by several events. In May 1999, the
accidental bombing of the Chinese Embassy in Belgrade sparked
protests in various cities and at U.S. Embassies. In April 2001,
a Chinese F-8 fighter collided with a U.S. EP-3 reconnaissance
aircraft flying over international waters south of China. The
damaged EP-3 made an emergency landing on China’s Hainan
Island. After extensive negotiations, the crew of the EP-3 was
allowed to leave China 11 days later, but the U.S. aircraft was not
permitted to depart for another 3 months.
The United States has direct investment in China in a wide range
of manufacturing sectors, and U.S. companies have entered
agreements establishing more than 20,000 equity joint ventures,
contractual joint ventures, and foreign-owned enterprises in
China. Cumulative U.S. investment in China is valued at US$48
billion. Total two-way trade between China and the U.S. grew
from US$33 billion in 1992 to more than US$230 billion in 2006.
The United States is China’s second largest trade partner. U.S.
exports to China have been increasing rapidly and imports from
China totalled US$287 billion in 2006.
The United States encourages China to be a responsible partner
in the global system but has concerns about China’s human
rights abuses. Reported abuses include arbitrary and lengthy
incommunicado detention, forced confessions, torture, and
prisoner mistreatment, as well as severe restrictions on freedom of
speech, press, assembly, religion, privacy, and worker rights.
92
China offered strong public support for the war on terrorism and
has been a partner in U.S. counterterrorism efforts following the
terrorist attacks of 11 September 2001. China voted in favor of
UN Security Council Resolution 1373, which publicly supported
the coalition campaign in Afghanistan, and contributed US$150
million of bilateral assistance to Afghan reconstruction. China
also pledged US$25 million to Iraq reconstruction. Shortly
after the terrorist attacks, the United States and China began a
counterterrorism dialogue, and the fourth round of that dialogue
was held in Washington in June 2004.
Outlook
China will likely continue to focus on diplomatic, economic, cultural
and military linkages regionally and globally. U.S.-China relations
will likely fluctuate between periods of tension and cooperation.
Concerns over Taiwan independence, trade, human rights, and a
lack of transparency in China’s military modernization program
will complicate the relationship. However, Chinese cooperation
on the North Korea nuclear issue and the global war on terrorism
will bolster relations. China’s future relationship with Japan hinges
on the direction of the U.S.-Japan security alliance, the potential
for Japanese military changes, and lingering resentment over
Japan’s actions during World War II. China will likely continue to
portray Japan as a regional pariah to reduce Japanese influence in
the region. Robust trade and increased diplomatic exchanges will
enable China’s relations with South Korea to prosper. Through trade
and regional institutions, China will continue to expand its presence
in Southeast Asia. While China is not seeking to directly confront
the United States in Southeast Asia, its interests may run counter
to U.S. priorities in the region. As China seeks to meet its resource
needs and diplomatically isolate Taiwan, it is expected that it will
become more active in Africa, Latin America, and the Middle East.
93
ECONOMY
Economic Statistics
GDP US$7.043 trillion (2007 est.)
Growth Rate 11.4 %
Per Capita US$5,300 (PPP)
Inflation Rate 4.7%
Debt US$363 billion (external)
Unemployment
Urban Areas 6.1%
Rural Areas 20%
Imports US$917.4 billion
Exports US$1.221 trillion
Labor Force 803.3 million
Resources
Industry
Industry and construction account for about 49 percent of China’s
GDP. Major industries are mining and ore processing; iron; steel;
aluminum; coal, machinery; textiles and apparel; armaments;
petroleum; cement; chemicals; fertilizers; consumer products
including footwear, toys, and electronics; automobiles and other
transportation equipment, including rail cars and locomotives,
ships, and aircraft; and telecommunications.
China has become a preferred destination for relocating global
manufacturing facilities. Its strength as an export platform has
contributed to incomes and employment in China. The state-owned
sector still accounts for about 40 percent of GDP. In recent years,
authorities have been giving greater attention to the management
94
of state assets — both in the financial market as well as among
state-owned-enterprises.
Agriculture
China is one of the largest producers and consumers of agricultural
products. Roughly half of China’s labor force is engaged in
agriculture, even though only 10 percent of the land is suitable
for cultivation. Its cropland area is only 75 percent of that in the
United States, but China still produces about 30 percent more
crops and livestock than the United States. Intensive cultivation has
made China among the world’s largest producers of rice, potatoes,
sorghum, millet, barley, peanuts, tea, and pork. Major non-food
crops include cotton, other fibers, and oilseeds. China hopes to
further increase agricultural production through improved plant
stocks, fertilizers, and technology.
Energy
In 2003, China surpassed Japan to become the second-largest
consumer of primary energy, after the United States. China is also
the third-largest energy producer in the world, after the United States
and Russia. China’s electricity consumption is expected to grow by
more than 4 percent each year through 2030, which will require
more than US$2 trillion in electricity infrastructure investment
to meet the demand. China expects to add approximately 15,000
megawatts of generating capacity a year, with 20 percent of that
coming from foreign suppliers.
China has become a significant oil consumer. In 2007, China
consumed 6.9 million barrels of oil per day and produced 3.7 million
barrels of oil per day. With China’s expectation of growing future
dependence on oil imports, the country has been acquiring interests
in exploration and production abroad. China’s oil companies have
95
acquired oil concessions in Azerbaijan, Canada, Kazakhstan,
Venezuela, Sudan, Indonesia, Iran and Iraq.
Coal makes up the bulk of China’s energy consumption. As
China’s economy continues to grow, China’s coal demand is
projected to rise significantly. Beijing would like to shift China’s
current energy mix toward greater reliance on oil, natural gas,
renewable energy, and nuclear power. Beijing also plans to increase
China’s natural gas production, which currently accounts for only
3 percent of China’s total energy consumption. China’s natural
gas consumption is expected to more than double by 2010.
Due in large part to environmental concerns, Beijing would like
to shift China’s current energy mix toward greater reliance on
oil, natural gas, renewable energy, and nuclear power. China has
abundant hydroelectric resources; for example, the Three Gorges
Dam, will have a total capacity of 18 gigawatts when fully online
(projected 2009). In addition, the share of electricity generated by
nuclear power is projected to increase from 1 percent in 2000 to
5 percent in 2030.
Science and Technology
Science and technology have always been a priority for the PRC.
The expansion of China’s technology capability has been attributed
to technology transfers from neighboring economies. Many of
China’s manufacturers are aware of the importance of technology
in production. Some manufacturing companies are oriented
toward high-tech and knowledge-based industries. However, due
to China’s large labor force, most of these jobs will not use these
technology resources and will continue to concentrate on labor-
intensive industries. Chinese science strategists see China’s greatest
opportunities in newly emerging fields such as biotechnology and
96
computers, where there is still a chance for China to become a
significant player. China has a small but growing space program
that has become a focus of national pride. The program put an
astronaut into orbit in 2003 and 2005, and has plans for a trip to
the moon by 2020.
Foreign Investment
China’s investment climate has changed significantly in 24 years
of reform. In the early 1980s, China restricted foreign investments
to export-oriented operations and required foreign investors to
form joint-venture partnerships with Chinese firms. Foreign Direct
Investment (FDI) grew quickly during the 1980s, but stalled in late
1989 in the aftermath of Tiananmen. In response, the government
Three Gorges Dam across the Yangtze River
97
introduced legislation and regulations designed to encourage
foreigners to invest in high-priority sectors and regions.
Since the early 1990s, China has allowed foreign investors to
manufacture and sell a wide range of goods on the domestic market,
and authorized foreign-owned enterprises, now the preferred form
of FDI. However, the government’s emphasis on guiding FDI into
manufacturing has led to market saturation in some industries,
while leaving China’s service sectors underdeveloped. China is
now one of the world’s leading recipients of FDI, receiving US$64
billion in 2004, for a cumulative total of US$563.8 billion.
As part of China’s accession to the World Trade Organization
in 2001, China undertook to eliminate certain trade-related
investment measures and open up specified sectors that had
been closed to foreign investment. New laws, regulations, and
administrative measures to implement these commitments are
being issued. Remaining barriers to foreign investment include
opaque and inconsistently enforced laws and regulations, and the
lack of a rules-based legal infrastructure.
Three Gorges Dam
98
Opening markets to outside investors remains central to China’s
development. China continues to attract large investment inflows.
Foreign exchange reserves totaled US$699 billion in 2007.
While many countries are turning to China for investment, many
local companies in China are investing abroad. These sectors range
from automotive to computers. For example, the Chinese computer
manufacturer, Lenovo, purchased the U.S.-based IBM personal
computer business in May of 2005. The most notable investment
is in the energy sector. Chinese firms have sought stakes in an
array of foreign oil companies. The largest deal to date is China
National Petroleum Corporation’s takeover of Canadian-owned
PetroKazakhstan in 2005. Despite an increased backlash against
foreign mergers and acquisitions, annual inflows of foreign direct
investment in 2006 rose to $63 billion. By the end of 2006, more
than 5,000 domestic Chinese enterprises had established direct
investments in 172 countries and regions around the world.
THREAT
Crime
Although China is generally a safe country, there has been
an increase in petty and violent crimes in recent years. Pocket
picking occurs mostly in tourist areas, markets, airports and stores
where foreigners visit and shop. Violent crimes against foreigners,
including sexual assaults and robberies at gun point, have been
reported in urban areas where bars and nightclubs are located.
Robberies have occurred in western China and more recently in
Beijing, as well as along remote mountain highways near China’s
border with Nepal. Throughout China, women outside hotels
in tourist districts are used to lure tourists into hotels under the
99
pretense of companionship or sex while their accomplices are
lying in wait to rob them.
There have been reported instances of mobs attacking foreigners
in the bar districts of Beijing. Also, there have been reports of
disputes between Chinese citizens and foreigners that have
escalated into violence against foreigners. U.S. citizens should use
common sense and avoid bar districts late at night.
China has a large volume of counterfeit currency and travelers
are sometimes asked by locals to exchange money at a good rate,
often leaving the traveler with counterfeit currency. It is illegal
in China to exchange dollars for RMB, except through official
channels such as banks, hotels and exchange offices. Foreigners
who exchange currency through unofficial means may be charged
with breaking foreign exchange laws. Reports of taxi drivers using
counterfeit notes to make change for a fare have become common.
U.S. personnel should only carry enough cash sufficient for their
daily needs and keep their valuables in secured locations. Proof
of U.S. Citizenship should be readily available if questioned by
Chinese officials. Passports are a target of theft and used for illegal
purposes and U.S. personnel should carry photocopies, not only of
their passports but also of their airline tickets and driver’s license.
The originals should be secured separately.
Travel Security
U.S. personnel should always be vigilant when traveling and be
aware of their environment. U.S. personnel are potential targets
for terrorist attacks overseas and transportation systems. Places
where Westerners congregate are the most likely places for a
terrorist attack. Unusual or suspicious activity should be reported
to the local police and U.S. Embassy.
100
Although terrorism in China is rare, there have been a few bombings
in China, mostly the result of commercial disputes. According to
China government figures, there were 74,000 incidents of social
unrest in 2006. Most of the incidents are small-scale disputes with
the government over land seizures, social issues, or environmental
problems but have occasionally been larger and have become
violent. These disputes do not typically involve foreigners.
U.S. personnel should be aware that foreign visitors will likely be
monitored or placed under surveillance while in country. Personal
possessions in hotel rooms may be searched and hotel phones and
fax machines may be monitored.
Taking photographs or recording images of military or security
interests may result in detention. Traveling near military installa-
tions and near certain borders is restricted and should be avoided.
There are restrictions on certain religious activities including
handing out non-authorized Christian material and preaching
or speaking about religion. U.S. persons have been detained or
expelled for being involved in this type of evangelism. If convicted
for this offense, penalties may range from 3-5 years in prison.
In the major cities, most tourist facilities are modern and well
equipped. However, in the smaller provincial cities and rural
areas, the facilities are frequently below international standards.
Outside the major cities, road quality and driving standards are
generally poor, leading to serious accidents. Public transportation
systems do not meet the same standards as those found in the
United States. Overcrowded ferries have sunk and piracy has been
reported in the South China Sea. Smuggling and petty theft has
occurred on the Trans-Siberian express trains
101
The border areas of Siberia, Pakistan, Vietnam, Laos, and Burma
are poorly policed and there is a risk of attack from armed bandits
in these and other remote areas of China. If traveling to Tibet,
U.S. personnel should be aware of the political sensitivities con-
cerning Tibetan independence and should not become involved in
any demonstrations or photograph/videotape such demonstrations
calling for Tibetan independence.
Terrorism
An accurate picture of the terrorist threat in China is difficult to
assess due to the lack of available information and the fact that
most of the information the United States does receive comes from
the China’s government, which has been accused of exaggerating
and redefining the threat. In December 2003, China issued its first
“terrorist” wanted list, blaming several Uighur separatist groups
for a string of bombings and assassinations throughout China, and
called for assistance from the international community to eradicate
the Uighur separatist groups.
The Uighur ethnic group, a Turkic Muslim minority numbering
approximately 9 million, resides predominantly in western China’s
Xinjiang Uighur Autonomous Region (XUAR). Their goal is to
establish an “East Turkestan” state in Xinjiang, but they are viewed
by China as a direct threat to its sovereignty and internal stability. In
1944, the Uighurs in Xinjiang declared independence and established
the East Turkestan Republic during the Japanese occupation of
China, only to have the Communist Chinese take control of the
region years later. Beijing promised the Uighur population eventual
autonomy. In 1955 the Xinjiang Uighur Autonomous Region was
established. Shortly after, Beijing began a colonization program of
immigrating Han Chinese into Xinjiang. The area was discovered
to be rich in gas and oil deposits, and Beijing was unwilling to give
102
up control of the region. Through their immigration efforts and a
crackdown on “antisocial elements,” the percentage of Uighurs’ in
Xinjiang dropped from 75 percent in 1942 to roughly 48 percent
in 2005. The China government has blamed several ethnic Uighur
groups operating in central Asia and Xinjiang for various attacks.
Some of the most notable groups are the East Turkestan Islamic
Movement (ETIM); the East Turkestan Liberation Organization
(ETLO), also known by the Turkish acronym SHAT; the Uighur
Youth Congress; and the East Turkestan Liberation Organization.
There are credible reports that Uighurs fought alongside the
Mujahidin in Afghanistan, but China claims that at least 1,000
Uighurs trained in Afghanistan with al Qa’ida.
The East Turkestan Islamic Movement (ETIM) reportedly has
ties to al Qa’ida, Usama bin Ladin, the Taliban, and the Islamic
Movement of Uzbekistan (IMU), a known terrorist group fighting
for an Islamic Turkish state in Uzbekistan. They reportedly
received training and funds from al Qa’ida. In 2002, Chinese
officials persuaded U.S. authorities to place the ETIM on the
U.S. Department of State’s list of Foreign Terrorist Organizations
based on the reported al Qa’ida connections. The ETIM has
been implicated in several attacks within the Xinjiang region
and elsewhere in China, but conclusive evidence as to their level
of involvement has been difficult to obtain. The East Turkestan
Liberation Organization (ETLO) has been blamed for small-scale
attacks and assassinations of Chinese officials, both in China and
central Asia. They reportedly have indirect ties to al Qa’ida but the
nature and type of relationship is not fully known.
Although no Uighur separatist groups have targeted U.S. interests,
there is concern over their possible links to al Qa’ida, and al Qa’ida-
affiliated groups, who have the potential to influence the Uighur
groups into conducting such attacks in the future. China’s govern-
103
ment closely monitors Uighur activity, which primarily focuses on
issues concerning the Xinjiang Uighur Autonomous Region, but
the potential for attacks throughout China will continue.
Intelligence Services
Ministry of State Security
The Ministry of State Security (MSS) was created in June 1983
by the Central Committee to centralize foreign intelligence
and counterintelligence functions. The MSS is headed by the
Minister of State Security, who reports to the Central Committee.
It conducts counterespionage operations in China, and human
intelligence and limited signals intelligence operations inside
and outside the PRC. The MSS centers its collection operations
on regional adversaries with which China has shared borders,
including Russia, India, Vietnam, and nations that are militarily,
politically, or economically important to China.
Other Intelligence Services
First Bureau: Domestic Bureau – recruits people with over-
■
seas connections to work for the Ministry of State Security.
Second Bureau: Foreign Bureau – is responsible for operations ■
abroad; outlines collection priorities, receives analysis, and reports
to higher levels any intelligence collected by its operatives.
Third Bureau: Hong Kong, Macau and Taiwan Bureau – is ■
responsible for operations in these areas; conducts agent op-
erations and recruits people with connections in these areas.
Fourth Bureau: Technology Bureau – studies and develops
■
intelligence-gathering and counterintelligence techniques.
Fifth Bureau: Local Intelligence Bureau – is responsible for
■
directing and coordinating the work of local departments and
104
bureaus of the Ministry of State Security at the provincial and
municipal levels.
Sixth Bureau: Counter-intelligence Bureau –works against over- ■
seas Chinese pro-democracy organizations and organizations
perceived as potentially destabilizing China’s government.
Seventh Bureau: Circulation Bureau – checks, verifies, pre- ■
pares, and writes intelligence reports and special classified
reports based on first-hand intelligence obtained from open
or secret sources.
Eighth Bureau: China Institute of Contemporary International
■
Relations (CICIR) – collects open-source reporting.
Ninth Bureau: Anti-Defection and Counter-Surveillance
■
Bureau – counters efforts by foreign intelligence to recruit
personnel of the Ministry of State Security and among cadres
of Chinese institutions abroad.
Tenth Bureau: Scientific and Technological Information Bureau – ■
collects economic, scientific, and technological intelligence.
Eleventh Bureau: Electronic Computers Bureau – analyzes ■
intelligence gathered with electronic computers, and operates
the computer network of the Ministry of State Security.
Host Nation Intelligence Threat
Precautions should be taken if traveling with classified or sensitive
information. The U.S. embassy requires that U.S. citizens traveling
with classified or sensitive materials contact the Regional Security
Officer to make arrangements for the transport of these materials.
All non-U.S.-government facilities should be considered
technically monitored. The China government monitors telephone
calls, e-mail, and internet usage. Hotel rooms are frequently
searched. If you suspect you are being monitored or are approached
by someone who asks you for classified or sensitive information,
105
give a detailed report to the Regional Security Officer or available
embassy security personnel.
Foreign Intelligence Threat
China hosts some foreign embassies with hostile intentions
toward the U.S. government. The most likely threat comes from
the following embassies: Iran, North Korea, Cuba, and Russia.
ARMED FORCES
The PLA formed as a communist guerrilla force in the 1930s that
engaged the enemy primarily with hit-and-run tactics codified
in Mao’s theories on guerrilla warfare. During World War II, as
the PLA grew and received military aid and instructions from the
Soviet Union, the force became more conventional and capable
of engaging sizable enemy units. By 1949, the PLA was strong
enough to win the civil war against the Chinese Nationalists and
drove the Nationalists to Taiwan.
As the PLA grew, its doctrine changed from one based on guerrilla
tactics to the People’s War doctrine, a concept espousing the use
of large numbers of troops to overrun enemy positions. Evidence
of this doctrinal change was the PLA’s performance in the Korean
conflict. The PLA’s success in Korea in fighting combined UN
forces, many of whom were U.S., gave the PLA confidence in the
People’s War doctrine.
The PLA gained additional war fighting experience from smaller
engagements. Its conflict with Taiwan over the “offshore islands”
of Quemoy and Matsu in 1954 and 1958, border conflicts with
India in 1962 and with the Soviet Union in 1979, and incursion
into Vietnam in 1979 account for the major lessons learned in
regional wars. Additionally, China engaged in naval battles in
106
the 1970s and 1980s to contest sovereignty over Paracel and the
Spratly Islands in the South China Sea.
The 1980s marked a transformation of the PLA. As China opened
itself to the outside world, senior PLA officers touring foreign
military establishments realized the significant technological and
doctrinal challenges for the PLA. Operations DESERT SHIELD/
DESERT STORM in 1990-91 proved that high-technology
weaponry can inflict devastating losses on a large, heavily
equipped military, and thus the PLA began seeking the capability
to use highly technical weaponry in local conflict.
China developed a high-technology warfare concept based on the
belief that localized conflicts along China’s periphery constituted
People’s Liberation Army
107
the greatest possible threat. As the Soviet Union collapsed and other
Asian countries’ economies and militaries grew, China’s leaders
realized that local conflict would be relatively short, intense, and
require the use of high-technology weaponry. China is still testing
and refining this new doctrine.
Organization
State and Party Central Military Commissions
The state and party Central Military Commissions (CMCs)
lead the armed forces. The CMC consists of the chairman, who
is commander-in-chief of the armed forces; an executive vice
chairman; two vice chairmen; and four other members.
The party CMC, elected by the party Central Committee, exercises
de facto, authoritative policymaking and operational control over
the military. The same people lead both the state and party CMC,
but the membership of the party CMC below the top leadership
may include regional commanders and service chiefs. Although
parallel leadership blurred the distinction between the two groups,
the party CMC retains its position in charge of military affairs.
Under the two CMCs are the Ministry of National Defense (MND)
and the National Defense Science, Technology, and Industry
Commission (NDSTIC); neither has operational control over the
PLA. The MND provides military modernization and administra-
tive support for the PLA. It is responsible for planning, manpower,
budget, foreign liaison, and training materials, but has no policy-
making or implementation authority. The NDSTIC is responsible
for military research and development, weapons procurement, and
coordination of the defense and civilian economic sectors.
108
Operational Control of the PLA
Operational control of the PLA runs from the CMCs to the PLA’s
four general departments: the General Staff Department, General
Political Department, General Logistics Department, and the
General Equipment Department. Below the department level runs
parallel chains of command for operational, political, and logistic
matters, each with its own separate communications facilities.
Military policy originates in the party Politburo or the party CMC,
becomes an operational order at the General Staff Department
level, is relayed through the military regions, and arrives at a
main-force unit. Orders to regional forces also pass through the
military district (provincial) level.
General Staff Department (GSD). The GSD carries out staff
and operational functions for the PLA and implements military
modernization plans. Led by the chief of general staff, the department
serves as the headquarters for the ground forces and contains
directorates for the air, naval, and missile forces. The GSD includes
functionally organized subdepartments for artillery, armored
units, engineering, operations, training, intelligence, mobilization,
surveying, communications, quartermaster services, and politics.
Navy Headquarters controls the North Sea Fleet, East Sea Fleet, and
South Sea Fleet. Air Force Headquarters generally exercises control
through the commanders of the military regions. Nuclear forces are
directly subordinate to the GSD. The GSD exercises operational
control of the main forces, and the military region commanders
control the regional forces and, indirectly, the militia.
General Political Department (GPD). The GPD is responsible
for ideological indoctrination, political loyalty, morale, personnel
records, cultural activities, discipline, military justice, and
provides the party structure for the PLA. The GPD director is the
109
head of a system of political commissars assigned to each echelon
in the PLA. One of the primary tasks of the political commissar
is supervising party organization through party committees at the
battalion level and above or through party branches in companies.
Most high-ranking officers are party members.
General Equipment Department (GED). Created on 5 April
1998, the GED is the product of a merger of the former Commission
of Science, Technology, and Industry for National Defense
(COSTIND), GSD Armament Department, and elements of the
General Logistics Department (GLD). The GED is responsible for
armament modernization.
General Logistics Department (GLD). The GLD, headed by
a director, is responsible for production, supply, transportation,
housing, pay, and medical services. Historically, much of this
support came from the civilian populace, and before the GLD was
established, political commissars organized such support. In 1985,
the CMC reorganized the GLD, cut its staff by 50 percent, and
turned some facilities over to the civilian sector.
Rank Structure
Since the PLA was formed in 1927, it has switched several times
between using and not using rank and rank insignia. In keeping
with communist egalitarianism, the PLA at times avoided the use of
hierarchy or rank. Its present comprehensive rank and rank insignia
system was established in 1988.
PLA officers are divided into 3 categories and 10 ranks. Currently,
the highest officer rank is general.
Enlisted personnel are divided into three categories and seven
ranks. In 1985, to strengthen the noncommissioned officer (NCO)
110
corps and retain technical specialists, the PLA redesignated 76
officer billets as volunteer or draftee NCO billets. Most of the
billets went to volunteer NCOs. In 1988, the Central Military
Commission (CMC) promoted volunteer NCOs to the ranks of
senior and specialist warrant officers.
Officers Enlisted
Category Rank Category Rank
General Officers General Warrant Officers Chief warrant Officer
Lieutenant General Specialist warrant Officer
Major General Noncommissioned
Officers
Sergeant First-Class
Field officers Senior Colonel Sergeant
Colonel Corporal
Lieutenant Colonel Enlisted Private First Class
Major Private
Junior officers Captain
First Lieutenant
Second Lieutenant
Army
Mission
The PLA ground force is responsible for defending national
sovereign territory and the Chinese Communist Party (CCP). The
PLA is responsible for defending mainland China, Hong Kong,
Macau, Taiwan, and China’s claims in the Spratlys.
Organization
The PLA ground force comprises the following:
7 military regions – Beijing, Jinan, Nanjing, Guangzhou,
■
Chengdu, Lanzhou, and Shenyang
28 military districts
■
4 garrisons – Beijing, Shanghai, Hong Kong, and Tianjin ■
111
18 integrated group armies (GA) with the following assets: ■
18 motorized infantry divisions ■
7 mechanized infantry divisions ■
8 armor divisions ■
23 motorized infantry brigades ■
5 mechanized infantry brigades ■
10 armor brigades (2 amphibious mechanized infantry ■
divsions, 1 amphibious armor division, 1 amphibious
infantry brigade and 2 amphibious armor brigades)
3 artillery divisions and 14 artillery brigades
■
4 army aviation regiments ■
Note: 9 infantry divisions are designated as regional rapid-reac-
tion (RR) forces.
Non-group Army assets include the following:
7 special reconnaissance daduis (SOF regiments)
■
1 airborne corps, with 3 airborne infantry divisions ■
Independent forces ■
1 short-range ballistic missile brigade ■
Airborne strategic rapid reaction forces are manned by AF per-
sonnel. Reserve units are organized by province to form about
18 infantry divisions.
Facilities
China’s ground forces are divided into seven military regions,
each comprising military districts (MD) organized as follows:
Northeast – Shenyang military region
■
Changchun, Jinzhou, and Lianyang GA HQs ■
Heilungkiang, Jilin, Liaoning, and Waichangshan MDs ■
112
North – Beijing Military Region ■
Shijiazhuang, Zhangjiakou, and Baoding GA HQs ■
Beijing Garrison, Tianjin Garrison, Nei Mongol, Hebei, ■
and Shanxi MDs
East – Nanjing Military Region
■
Xuzhou, Huzhou, and Xiamen GA HQs ■
Shanghai Garrison, Jiangsu, Zhejiang, Fujian, Jiangxi, ■
and Anhui MDs
South – Guangzhou Military Region
■
Huizhou and Liuxhou GA HQs ■
Hubei, Hunan, Guangdong, Guangxi, and Hainan MDs ■
South-West – Chengdu Military Region ■
Chongqing and Kunming GA HQs ■
Sichuan, Guizhou, Yunnan, and Xizang MDs ■
West – Lanzhou Military Region ■
Baoji, Lintong GAs ■
Ningxia, Shaanxi, Gansu, Qinghai, and Xinjiang MDs ■
Center – Jinan Military Region ■
Kaifeng, Xinxiang, and Weifang GA HQs ■
Shandong and Kaifeng MDs ■
Paracel Islands. In early 1994, China deployed additional aircraft
to its newly constructed 2,600-meter (8,230-foot) airstrip on
Woody Island. These aircraft join patrol boats, helicopters, and
marines previously stationed there. From Woody Island, China can
extend limited air coverage to the Spratly Islands to the south.
113
Spratly Islands. Improvements to islands claimed by China
continued in 1995-96 with at least US$11.5 million worth of
living quarters upgrades, coastal defense pillboxes, fresh water
tanks, and electrical generators. China-occupied islands within
the Spratly Islands group include: Elided Reef, Subi Reef, Gaven
Reef, Johnson Reef, Pearson Reef, Cuarteron Reef, and Fiery
Cross Reef. A man-made harbor and meteorological observation
station has been constructed at Yongshu reef. Small boat shelters
have also been constructed on Meiji reef.
Hong Kong Garrison is a combination of select ground, naval,
and air force units. The total force comprises about 20,000 troops
including mainland logistic and reserve forces. Of the total, only
INDIA
NEPAL
BHUTAN
BURMA
LAOS
VIETNAM
THAILAND
PAK.
MONGOLIA
TAJ.
KYRGYZSTAN
KAZAKHSTAN
RUSSIA
NORTH
KOREA
SOUTH
KOREA
JAPA N
PHILIPPINES
TAIWAN
BEIJING
China
0 250 Miles125
0 250 Kilometers125
National Capital
Air Bases
Army Bases
Naval Bases
Military Regions
Beijing
Shenyang
Jinan
Nanjing
Guangzhou
Chengdou
Lanzhou
Military Regions
114
about 10,000 are actually garrisoned within the borders of the Hong
Kong Special Administrative Region. The ground forces portion
takes the form of a reinforced Brigade composed of three infantry
regiments, an armor regiment, an artillery regiment, and an engi-
neer regiment. The air and naval assets are based at the regimental
level and are directly subordinate to the garrison command. One
new rifle type used by the PLA Hong Kong garrison resembles a
Bullpup design with the magazine to the rear of the trigger hous-
ing, similar to the French FA-MAS and British Enfield SA80.
The Macau Special Administrative Region, separate from Hong
Kong SAR and located on the west side of the Pearl River delta, is
also garrisoned with troops assigned to the Hong Kong Garrison
Command. About a battalion of motorized infantry is stationed
in the Macau SAR on any day. No PLA air or naval assets are
stationed in Macau.
Personnel
The PLA has been downsizing and reorganizing its combat
and support structures since 1996, when the total force had
approximately 3 million members in uniform. On 1 September
2003, the government announced that it would further reduce
the PLA by 200,000 troops in an effort to create a leaner, more
balanced force. Current estimates of ground force strength vary
from a high of 2.5 million to a low of 2 million.
The 1984 Military Service Law and the 1985 “Regulations for
Conscript Work” stipulates that all citizens between the ages of 18
to 22, irrespective of gender, nationality, profession, and family
can be drafted. Almost 10 million men reach conscription age
each year but fewer than 10 percent serve in active duty forces;
many receive deferments and some do not meet enlistment criteria.
115
Some women are inducted. The seven military regions and the
People’s Armed Forces Department are responsible for meeting
conscription quotas in their areas. Much of their quotas are met by
volunteers; the balance of their quotas is filled through the draft.
Enlisted
Enlisted
U.S. Equivalent
U.S. Equivalent
U.S. Equivalent
Officers
Si Ji Shi Guan Wu Ji Shi Guan Liu Ji Shi Guan
NCO
Fourth Class
NCO Fifth Class NCO Sixth Class
Lie Bing Shang Deng Bing Yi Ji Shi Guan Er Ji Shi Guan San Ji Shi Guan
Private First Class Private NCO First Class
NCO
Second Class
NCO Third Class
Xue Yuan Shao Wei Zhong Wei Shang Wei Shao Xiao
Officer Cadet
Second
Lieutenant
Lieutenant Captain Major
Zhong Xiao Shang Xiao Da Xiao Shao Jiang Zhong Jiang Shang Jiang
Lieutenant
Colonel
Colonel Senior Colonel Major General
Lieutenant
General
General
Officers
U.S. Equivalent
Army Rank Insignia
116
The PLA has approximately 2.3 million active personnel, 750,000
of whom are conscripts. Officers are drawn from military academy
graduates, civilian cadres, and technical personnel recruited by
nonmilitary units in the PLA. NCOs, such as the chief warrant
officer (CWO) or the master sergeant, may become officers by
exemplary performance and by completing 2 years of service as
CWO. The Army has roughly 900,000 reservists.
In October 1998, the PLA announced it would reduce the length
of initial military service from 3 to 2 years in the Army and from 3
or 4 years to 2 years in the Navy and Air Force. By doing this, the
PLA intends to attract more highly educated youths to volunteer
for military service.
Some of the incentives offered to attract higher quality recruits
include providing demobilized servicemen jobs at state-owned
PLA Troops on Parade
117
industries and offering tuition-free education and training. Other
enticements include incentive pay to college graduates, employees
of the CCP, Taiwanese immigrants, and ethnic minorities. The PLA
also seeks to improve housing and soldiers’ welfare benefits.
To increase the quality of its personnel, the PLA decentralized its
command structure by creating NCO billets with duties previously
performed by junior officers. The creation of chief warrant officers
and technical warrant officers in 1988 was part of the PLA’s effort
to encourage the retention of high quality draftees with a career
track that may eventually allow them to become officers.
Doctrine
Prior to 1985, Chinese military strategy was based on an inevitable,
protracted ground war with the Soviet Union. PLA strategists
came to reject that strategy in favor of the belief that future wars
would be short, intense, and geographically limited. This doctrinal
shift arose for a number of reasons. Lessened tensions and
détente between the United States and the USSR, the Reagan-era
defense buildup, emergence of Gorbachev’s “new thinking,” and
the Soviet military’s poor performance in Afghanistan reduced
Chinese military concerns over a Soviet invasion. The Iran-Iraq
conflict; conflict in Afghanistan, Lebanon, and Kuwait; and
operations DESERT SHIELD/DESERT STORM strengthened
Chinese strategists’ realization of the need for high technological
capabilities and a quick, mobile, and lethal force structure. In the
second half of the 1980s, the PLA began to implement this new
strategy by cutting one million personnel, reducing the number of
military regions from 11 to 7, and restructuring the PLA’s 36 army
corps into combined-arms group armies. Ground forces were
de-emphasized, and force modernization efforts were directed
at navy and air force programs. The PLA also instituted higher
118
education requirements for officers and new cadre and regulation
and training reforms to create a professional officer corps with
over 90 percent possessing college or technical education.
Since 1985, the PLA has been modernizing to form a highly mobile
force capable of conducting all weather, day/night, joint operations.
The resultant force composition likely will include a select high-
technology force capable of limited force projection operations and
a light infantry force operating under the doctrine of “People’s War
Under Modern Conditions” for defense of the mainland.
The new doctrine, refined in early 2002-2003, reflects the PLA’s
desire to address modern warfare in the context of a “Local War
Under High Tech Conditions,” emphasizing precision strikes, non-
linear, multidimensional battlefields, electronic and information
warfare, air power, and air defense.
Tactics
The tactics, techniques, and procedures for most of the army will
continue to operate under the People’s War doctrine until the
PLA is capable of widespread force modernization. It will have a
limited role in force projection operations. In local wars, it will be
the defensive force. Its main mission will be to defend the borders
and mainland against attack and ensure internal stability.
Logistics and C4ISR
Two of the main problems for the Chinese army in a local war
are logistics and C4ISR. The PLA logistics system was designed
to be redundant and to fight a war on interior lines. Each military
region has its own system of depots and supply and is not designed
to quickly support a force projection operation; distance and
differences in local region organization hamper the effectiveness
of relocating units from their home regions. The Chinese believe
119
they can support an operation for no longer than 30 days under
the current system and have experimented with mobile logistics
brigades to overcome this deficiency. The C4ISR in China is
redundant and secure through a series of satellites and fiber optic
cable, but does not extend into possible threat countries. This
weakens the control normally exercised over subordinate units,
forcing individual commanders below division level to exercise
more initiative than they are accustomed to using.
Individual and Collective Training
In addition to active forces, the PLA trains and maintains more
than 1.2 million reservists who have a military obligation until
age 45. Most of the approximately 1 million reserves are assigned
to the ground forces where they are organized by province.
Because of the high conscription rates, emphasis is first placed
on individual skills, then gradually work up to collective and
unit missions. The PLA trains regularly in large-scale operations,
usually during the fall, after a series of smaller spring and summer
exercises. Emphasis in the past 5 years has been on combined and
joint training, integrating ground, naval, and air forces in a large-
scale exercise following individual service work-ups.
Equipment
Ground Combat Vehicles
Tanks
Type 98 (also Type 99 and ZTZ-99)
Type 85 IIM/Type 85 IIA (Type 96)
Type 80/Type 80 II (Type 88B)
Type 79
Type 69 I/Type 69 II (mod Type-59 type) MBT
120
Type 63 light amphibious (including Type 63A)
Type 62 light
Type 59/Type 59 II MBT
Armored Vehicles (many are in storage)
WZ 501/WZ 501A AIFV
Z 504 HJ-73B tank destroyer
WZ 551 Wheeled IFV
WZ 551 HJ-8 tank destroyer
YW 534 APC
YW 531 (YW 531C/YW 531D/YW 531E)
YW 531 HJ-8 tank destroyer
YW 309 ICV
YW 307 ICV
WZ-523 Wheeled APC
Type 77-2 amphibious (Russian BTR-50PK)
Type 85 (YW 531H)
Type 90 APC
Artillery (many reported to be non-operational)
155-mm WA 021 towed gun/howitzer
130-mm Type 59-1 towed
122-mm Type 60 towed (Russia D-74)
100-mm Type 73 towed anti-tank (Russia T-12)
100-mm Type 59 towed anti-tank/field gun (Russian BS-3)
100-mm Type 86 towed anti-tank
85-mm Type 56 towed
76-mm Type 54 towed anti-tank (Russian ZIS-3)
57-mm Type 55 towed anti-tank (Russian ZIS-2)
121
Howitzers
155-mm x 52-cal SP
152-mm Type 83 SP
152-mm Type 54 towed (Russia D-1)
152-mm Type 66 towed gun/howitzer (Russian D-20)
152-mm Type 83 towed/SP
122-mm D-30 towed
122-mm Type 85 SP (Type YW 531 chassis)
122-mm Type 83 towed
122-mm Type 54 towed (Russian M30)
122-mm Type 54-1 self-propelled (Type YW 531C chassis)
Air Defense Guns
100-mm Type 59 towed (copy of Russian KS-19M2)
85-mm Type 72 towed (copy of Russian KS12)
57-mm Type 80 self-propelled
57-mm Type 59 towed (copy of Russian S-60)
57-mm S-60 towed
37-mm M1986 twin self-propelled
37-mm Type 88 twin self-propelled
37-mm Type P793 twin towed
37-mm Type 74 twin towed
37-mm Type 65 twin towed
37-mm Type 55 twin towed
35-mm GDF-003 twin towed
35-mm Type 90 twin towed (GDF-003 produced in China)
25-mm PGZ 95 gun-missle self-propelled
25-mm Type 85 twin towed
14.5-mm Type 75 and 75-1 towed (Russian ZGU-1)
122
14.5-mm Type 80 towed (copy of Russian ZGU-1)
14.5-mm Type 58 twin towed (copy of Russian ZPU-2)
14.5-mm Type 56 quad towed (copy of Russian ZPU-4)
12.7-mm Type 54 and 54-1 (copy of Russian M38/46)
12.7-mm Type 77 heavy machinegun
12.7-mm Type W-85 heavy machinegun
Mortars
160-mm Type 56 towed (Russian M1943)
120-mm Type YW 381 self-propelled
120-mm Type 85 self-propelled
120-mm Type 55 towed/self-propelled (Russian M1943)
82-mm Type 53 towed/self-propelled (Russian 1937)
82-mm Type YW 304 self-propelled
82-mm Type 85 self-propelled
Multiple Rocket Launchers
315-mm Type PMH90-315-2 self-propelled
300-mm Type A100 self-propelled
130-mm Type 82
130-mm Type 70 self-propelled
130-mm Type 63
130-mm Type 63-I
122-mm Type 89 self-propelled
122-mm Type 85 self-propelled
122-mm Type 81 self-propelled (Russia BM-21)
107-mm Type 63-1 towed
107-mm Type 63 towed
107-mm Type 81 self-propelled
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Recoilless Guns
82-mm Type 65 (Russian B-10)
75-mm Type 52/56 (US M20)
Antitank Missiles
HJ-73 (Hong Jian 73) Red Arrow 73 (Russian AT-3 Sagger)
HJ-8 (Hong Jian 8) Red Arrow 8
Surface-to-Air Missiles
Hong Nu 5A/C (HN 5A/C) (Russian SA-7 variant)
HF-61A (Hong Qian 61) twin self-propelled
HQ-7 (also known as the FM-80/90) self-propelled quad-launcher
(Crotale derivative)
Army Aviation
Helicopters
Mi-8/17 Hip C/H/L (Russian)
Z-9 Harbin (SA365N Dauphin 2)
SA342 Gazelle (w/HOT ATGW) (French)
S-70C (US UH-60A Black Hawk) (may be non-operational)
AS 332L (Super Puma)
Z-11
Z-8
Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAVs)
ASN-104/ASN-105
ASN-206
NPU D-4
Chang Hong 1
124
PLA Air Force (PLAAF)
Mission
The People’s Liberation Army Air Force’s (PLAAF) mission is
to provide air defense, medium-range nuclear weapon delivery,
attack, close air support, anti-aircraft missile and gun defense for
China as well as air support for the PLA group armies. The Navy
maintains a separate air force.
Organization
The PLAAF is organized into three administrative levels:
headquarters air force (HqAF); military region air forces
(MRAFs); and command posts/bases. Depending on the type
of unit, operational units are organized into divisions, brigades,
regiments, groups, squadrons, battalions, companies, platoons,
squads, and flights. Operational units can be directly subordinate
to HqAF, the MRAF headquarters, a command post, or a base.
The MRAFs are divided into 7 military air districts with 45 aircraft
divisions and 7 independently operating air defense zones. Each
division has two to three regiments containing either 72 to 90
bombers or 60 to 120 fighters.
Combat air divisions are likely structured with three regiments,
each with three squadrons. Each squadron has three flights (four
to five aircraft each), and one maintenance unit. The combat air
division may also have some transport and training units.
The PLAAF air defense forces may contain 16 artillery divisions
with 100 surface-to-air missile units and 28 independent air
defense regiments.
125
Personnel
The PLAAF has approximately 400,000 active personnel,
including the strategic and air defense forces.
Enlisted
Enlisted
U.S. Equivalent
U.S. Equivalent
U.S. Equivalent
Officers
Si Ji Shi Guan Wu Ji Shi Guan Liu Ji Shi Guan
NCO
Fourth Class
NCO Fifth Class NCO Sixth Class
Lie Bing Shang Deng Bing Yi Ji Shi Guan Er Ji Shi Guan San Ji Shi Guan
Private First Class Private NCO First Class
NCO
Second Class
NCO Third Class
Xue Yuan Shao Wei Zhong Wei Shang Wei Shao Xiao
Officer Cadet
Second
Lieutenant
Lieutenant Captain Major
Zhong Xiao Shang Xiao Da Xiao Shao Jiang Zhong Jiang Shang Jiang
Lieutenant
Colonel
Colonel Senior Colonel Major General
Lieutenant
General
General
Officers
U.S. Equivalent
Air Force Rank Inisgnia
126
Operations
China has committed a small number of medical and logistic
troops to the UN operation in the Democratic Republic of Congo.
The PLAAF has not contributed to this operation, but China’s
commitment represents a small beginning that could increase. It
is possible that China will consider a commitment of transport
aircraft to fulfill logistic requirements.
Capabilities
China’s 5-year plan, implemented in 2000, introduced new
joint doctrines under the larger “Peoples War Under High Tech
Conditions.” It also initiated a strong commitment to new multi-
role fighters, modern weapons and modern support aircraft, to
include AWCS, tankers, ELINT/SIGINT platforms and transports,
new air defense missiles, and the expansion of airborne troop
units. There has been some indication that the PLAAF may
exploit new space reconnaissance capabilities to better enable
new precision strike weapons. The PLAAF is devoting greater
resources to modern air defense systems and to airborne troops to
better enable offensive operations.
China’s Soviet 1950s-era fighters and bombers like the J-6 and
H-5 are rapidly declining in use. The PLAAF will rely heavily on
foreign systems, especially from Russia to achieve modernization
goals. The PLAAF will likely be open to future cooperative
opportunities with Europe, should it end its 1989 arms embargo.
Reports in April 2005 that China was prepared to purchase
210 Dassault Mirage-2000 fighter bombers, plus a package of
weapons and spares, have been denied by Dassault sources, but
other sources contend France is prepared to sell these fighters as
soon as the embargo is lifted.
127
By 2002-2003 reforms and upgrades in China’s domestic aerospace
sector began to reveal new weapons development capabilities. By
the late 1990s, the aerospace sector began to exhibit the benefits
of broader PLA-industry reforms that stressed greater competition
and integration with the civil high-tech sector. With help from
Russia, and after absorbing Western design and manufacturing
technology, Chinese companies have began to produce competitive
weapons like the Chengdu J-10 multi-role fighter, the JH-7A attack
fighter, and the PL-12/SD-10 active-guided AAM. China is also
developing a new AWACS, ELINT and tanker aircraft, in addition
to new SAMs. Chinese firms are demonstrating an increasing
competence in developing critical combat aircraft subsystems like
turbofan engines and radar.
China may soon have three indigenous 5th generation fighter
programs underway. These programs will stress stealth, modern
phased array radar technology and internal weapons carriage; one
by Shenyang and two by Chengdu. The PLAAF may purchase
Russian Tupolev-Tu-22M3 BACKFIRE bombers recently offered
for sale – which it tried to buy in the early 1990s – as well as
develop a new indigenous long-range strike aircraft. The PLAAF
also appears to have a strong interest in developing UACs for both
non-combat missions like reconnaissance and for some combat
missions. While the PLA has established some momentum in its
modernization program, it still faces the following obstacles:
Increasing costs to retain quality personnel in a more competi-
■
tive labor market;
Integration of the new aircraft;
■
Logistic support to sustain sortie rates associated with high- ■
tempo modern warfare;
Training in terms of pilot capability and flight time;
■
Joint service training ■
128
Training
All aviation basic and primary training is carried out by the PLAAF.
PLAAF training has been developed, according to reports from
the General Staff Headquarters, to include combat maneuvers
with aircraft of different types and to increase operational training
with live munitions/weapons, including bombs. Other priorities
are in-flight refueling and long-range offensive air and task force
protection roles.
Training and education in the PLAAF is currently based on the
‘5-3’ tier system. This includes five tiers of specialized training
and education for officers: secondary specialized; specialized
college or equivalent; university or equivalent; master’s degree
program; and doctoral program. There is also a three-tier system
of professional military education for officers. Conscripts and
volunteers are assigned to training units. For the first time, new
pilots are expected to graduate from PLAAF academies with
college degrees.
Significant changes have been introduced in pilot training. Fighter
and ground-attack pilot training was traditionally a three-phase
process: basic flight school (20 months), flying academy (28
months) and operational unit training (4 to 5 years). In the mid-
1980s the PLAAF began to experiment with an additional fourth
phase. For graduates of ground-attack flying programs, phase
three became a 1-year aircraft ‘conversion program at newly
organized ‘transition training bases.’ In 1988 each military region
was authorized to establish a transition training base. The goal is
to eventually eliminate the need for operational fighter divisions to
dedicate one of their three regiments to training.
129
Equipment
Fixed-Wing Aircraft
Nomenclature Type Quantity
H-6 Bomber 120
JH-7A Bomber 20
J-8 I (J-8A/E) Interceptor 70
J-8 II (J-8B) Interceptor 90
J-8 IV (J-8D) Interceptor 80
J-8F Interceptor 40
J-8H Interceptor 40
Su-27SK (FLANKER-B) Interceptor 30
(FLANKER-B) (J-11)
Interceptor 100
Su-30MKK (FLANKER) Interceptor 70
J-7 II (J-7B) Air Defense/Attack 450
J-7 III (J-7C) Air Defense/Attack 60
J-IIIA (JD) Air Defense/Attack 30
J-7 IV (J-7E) Air Defense/Attack 70
J-7G Air Defense/Attack 30
J-10 Attack 100
Q-5 Attack 200
A-50 (MAINSTAY)
(Kongjing 2000)
Airborne Early Warning
2
JZ-6 Reconnaissance 60
JZ-8 Reconnaissance 20
Tu-154M/D (CARELESS) ELINT 1
An-24 (COKE) Transport 10
An-26 (CURL) Transport 12
An-30 (CLANK) Transport 8
767-332 ER Transport 1
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Nomenclature Type Quantity
737-300 Transport 8
737-700 Transport 2
Y-11 Transport 15
II-18 (COOT) Transport 10
II-76MD (CANDID) Transport 14
Y-8 Transport 25
Tu-154M (CARELESS) Transport 16
Y-7 Transport 30
H-6U Tanker 10
Regional Jet SE Communication 45
Y-5 Utility 110
JL-8 (K-8) Karakorum Armed Trainer 50
Y-8 Combat Support 2
JJ-5 Trainer 200
JJ-7 Trainer 100
JL-9 Trainer
CJ-6 Trainer 350
JJ-6 Trainer 100
Su-27UB (FLANKER C) Trainer 35
An-30 (CLANK) Crew Trainer 6
Rotary Aircraft
Nomenclature Type Quantity
Z-5 Utility Helicopter 40
Unmanned Aerial Vehicles
Nomenclature Type
Chang Hong 1 Drone/UAV
Y-8E Drone Carrier
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Air Defense Systems
Nomenclature Type
S-300/PMU-1/PMU-2 Air Defense Missile System
FT-2000/2000a Air Defense Missile System
KS-1A Air Defense Missile System
HQ-61 Air Defense Missile System
HQ-2J Air Defense Missile System
HQ-2B Air Defense Missile System
100-mm Anti-aircraft Artillery
85-mm Anti-aircraft Artillery
57-mm Anti-aircraft Artillery
35-mm Anti-aircraft Artillery
14.5-mm Anti-aircraft Artillery
12.7-mm Anti-aircraft Artillery
Missiles
Nomenclature Type
PL-5 Air-to-Air
PL-6 Air-to-Air
PL-8 Air-to-Air
PL-10 Air-to-Air
PL-11 Air-to-Air
PL-9 Air-to-Air
AA-10 (ALAMO) Air-to-Air
AA-11 (ARCHER) Air-to-Air
AA-12 (ADDER) Air-to-Air
YJ-63 Air-to-Surface
AS-17 Krypton (KR-1) Air-to-Surface
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Navy
Organization
Within the PLA’s Navy, there are three naval fleets subordinate to
the National Naval Headquarters: North Sea (NSF), East Sea (ESF)
and the South Sea Fleets (SSF). Each fleet contains three naval
districts or independent sectors. The three fleets contain elements
of all main combatant types (submarines, destroyers, frigates,
patrol craft, and mine sweepers) and are centrally controlled from
Beijing through the respective fleet HQ. Fleet commanders serve
as deputy commanders of the associated military region.
The NSF, headquartered in Qingdao, is responsible for the Yellow
Sea, Bo Hai Gulf, and Korea Bay. The ESF, headquartered in
Ningbo south of Shanghai, is responsible for the East China Sea
from Jiangsu Province south through Fujian, including the Taiwan
Strait. The SSF, headquartered at Zhanjiang, is responsible for the
South China Sea area along the Guangdong and Guangxi coastlines
to include the Gulf of Tonkin, Hainan Island, the Spratly (Nansha)
Islands and the Paracel (Xisha) Islands.
Strategy
The People’s Liberation Army Navy (PLA[N]) follows strategic
level guidance known as “Offshore Defense” that is the maritime
component of the PLA’s operational strategy known as “Active
Defense.” “Active Defense” essentially means to attack after
being attacked; however, operationally it consists of offensive and
counter-attack operations. “Offshore Defense” was promulgated
in 1985 after Deng Xiaoping determined that evolving threat
conditions on the periphery of China and the international strategic
and military dynamic demanded a reshaping of the PLA. Instead
of using the navy in a coastal defense capacity intended to support
133
land operations on the mainland, the PLA(N) was to take on a
more strategic role by defending China’s national interests and
operating farther out to sea.
Enlisted
Enlisted
U.S. Equivalent
U.S. Equivalent
U.S. Equivalent
Officers
Si Ji Shi Guan Wu Ji Shi Guan Liu Ji Shi Guan
NCO
Fourth Class
NCO Fifth Class NCO Sixth Class
Lie Bing Shang Deng Bing Yi Ji Shi Guan Er Ji Shi Guan San Ji Shi Guan
Sailor Private First Class NCO First Class
NCO
Second Class
NCO Third Class
Xue Yuan Shao Wei Zhong Wei Shang Wei Shao Xiao
Officer Cadet
Ensign
Lieutenant
Junior Grade
Lieutenant
Lieutenant
Commander
Zhong Xiao Shang Xiao Da Xiao Shao Jiang Zhong Jiang Shang Jiang
Commander
Captain Senior Captain Rear Admiral
Vice Admiral
Admiral
Officers
U.S. Equivalent
Navy Rank Insignia
134
The PLA(N)’s doctrine is in the process of development as it
incorporates newer, more modern platforms into its fleet.
Personnel
The PLA(N) consists of approximately 255,000 personnel in-
cluding 25,000 PLA(N) Air Force (PLANAF) personnel, 37,000
Maritime Border Defense Force personnel, and 49,000 naval
reserves. In addition, the South Sea Fleet contains two Marine
Brigades of approximately 5,000 personnel each.
Equipment
Destroyers
Type Quantity
LUYANG I DDG 2
LUYANG II DDG 2
SOVREMENNYY DDG 2
LUHAI DD 1
LUHU DD 2
LUDA I DD 11
LUDA II DD 1
LUDA IV DD 4
Frigates
Type Quantity
JIANGKAI FF 2
JIANGWEI I FF 4
JIANGWEI II FF 10
JIANGHU I FF 26
JIANGHU II FF 1
JIANGHU III FF 3
JIANGHU V FF 1
135
Guided Missile Patrol Boats
Type Quantity
HOUBEI PTG 3
HOUJIAN PGG 6
HOUXIN PGG 20
OSA PTG 10
Patrol Craft
Type Quantity
HAIJIU PC 6
HAINAN PC 75
HAIQING PC 20
HAIZHUI PC 8
SHANGHAI III PC 40
Mine Warfare
Type Quantity
T-43 MSF 20
WOSAO MSF 4
WOZANG MSF 1
WOLEI MSF 1
Amphibious
Type Quantity
YUKAN LST 7
YUTING I LST 10
YUTING II LST 9
YUNSHU LSM 10
YUHAI LSM 11
YUDENG LSM 1
YUBEI LCU 11
YUNNAN I/II LCM 40
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Intelligence Collection
Type Quantity
DADIE AGI 1
DONGDIAO AGI 1
XIANYANG HONG 9 AGI 1
YANBING AGI 1
HAI YANG AG 2
XIANGYANG HONG 9 AG 1
YANQIAN AG 2
YANZHENG AG 1
KANJIE AGS 1
YUAN WANG 1 AGM 2
YUAN WANG 3 AGM 1
YUAN WANG 4 AGM 1
Submarines
XIA SSBN
HAN SSN
SONG SS
KILO 877 and 636
MING SS
ROMEO SS
Modified ROMEO SSG
GOLF SSB
Type 093 SSN
Type 094 SSBN
Missiles
Surface-to-Surface
Shangyou-1 (SY-1)(Chinese copy of Russian SS-N-2a STYX)
Hai Ying 1 (HY-1) (derived from SY-1) (SILKWORM)
Hai Ying 2 (HY-2) (improved HY-1)
137
C801
C802
Air-to-Surface
C801K
C601 antiship
C611 antiship
Surface-to-Air
HQ-61 (CSA-N-1)
LY-60N (Aspide derivative)
HQ-2/-2J
KS-1
SA-N-20
HHQ-9
HN-5 (Russian SA-7)
SA-N-7
HHQ-7 (derivative of Naval Crotale)
86(+) R440 Crotale (missiles) (France)
Air-to-Air
Pen Lung 2
Pen Lung 5
Pen Lung 7
Pen Lung 9
PLA(N) Air Force
The PLA(NAF) is a land-based force used primarily for coastal
defense and shipping interdiction. It comprises three antiship
(bomber) divisions, five fighter divisions, and several support
squadrons (maritime, helicopter, transport, training).
138
Equipment
Bombers
B-6 (BADGER) maritime strike
Fighters
A-5 (FANTAN) attack
F-7B/F-7E (FISHBED) (MiG 21 derivative)
FB-7/FB-7A (FLOUNDER) fighter-bomber
F-8A-E (FINBACK) fighter
Su-30 MK2 (FLANKER) fighter-bomber
Antisubmarine/Maritime Patrol
SH-5 amphibian ASW
Y-8X (CUB) maritime patrol
Y-8 AEW airborne early warning
Y-7 (Russian An-24 COKE)
Yak-42D
Y-5
F-5/F-5A (FRESCO)
F-7 (FISHBED)
F-6 FARMER
Y-7 (Russian An-24 COKE) avionics trainer
Helicopters
Ka-28A (HELIX) ASW
Z-9 Haitun (French AS565N Dauphin)
Z-8 ASW/ASUW (French SA321 Super Frelon)
Air-to-Surface Missiles
C801K
C601
C611
139
Air-to-Air Missiles
PL- 5
PL- 9
Deployment
The following is a list of major naval facilities and fleet headquarters:
North Sea Fleet (HQ – Qingdao) Bases in Qingdao, Dalian,
■
Huludao, Weihai, Chengshan, Lushun, Jianggezhuang,
Xiaoping Dao
East Sea Fleet (HQ – Ningbo) Bases in Shanghai, Wusong,
■
Dinghai, Hangzhou, Xiangshan, Daxie Dao
South Sea Fleet (HQ – Zhanjiang) (Guangdong province)
■
Bases in Zhanjiang, Shantou, Guangzhou, Haikou, Hong
Kong, Yulin, Beihai, Guangpu, Paracel Islands, and the
Spratly Islands
Nuclear submarines are assigned to the North Sea Fleet. MING-
Class submarines are operational in the North and South Sea Fleets.
SONG-Class submarines are assigned to the North and East Sea
fleets and four KILO SS are assigned to the East Sea Fleet.
Paracel Islands. In early 1994, China deployed additional aircraft
to its newly constructed 2,600-meter (8,230-foot) airstrip on
Woody Island. These aircraft join patrol boats, helicopters, and
marines already stationed there. From Woody Island, China can
extend limited air coverage to the Spratly Islands to the south.
Spratly Islands. The Chinese military improved facilities on their
claimed islands in 1995-96.
140
Issues
Since the late 1990s, the PLA(N) has made progress toward
developing into a regional naval power with some blue-water
capability. Modernization efforts encompassed higher educational
and technical standards for personnel; reformulation of the
traditional coastal defense doctrine and force structure in favor
of more blue-water operations; and training in naval combined-
arms operations involving submarine, surface, naval aviation,
and coastal defense forces. Examples of the expansion of China’s
blue-water naval capability include extended naval operations in
the South China Sea, and goodwill tours to the U.S., Australia and
other Asia-Pacific countries.
The PLA(N) has reportedly faced significant obstacles with on-
board weaponry, radar-computer missile guidance interface, anti-
quated electrical equipment, and power plants on new platforms.
Efforts to handle overall fleet deficiencies including AAW, ASUW,
ASW, electronic warfare, and C4ISR are complicated by foreign
purchases that pose force integration problems. The PLA(N) has
made efforts to address these problems through indigenous pro-
duction programs.
Plans and Programs
Submarines. China purchased eight additional KILO-Class
SS in 2002, which were delivered to China by the end of 2006.
The KILOs are equipped with the SS-N-27B, an advanced
supersonic antiship cruise missile that has significantly enhanced
China’s ability to conduct submarine antisubmarine warfare
(ASUW). As of late 2007, 13 SONG-Class SS, capable of firing
a C801-derived submerged-launched cruise missile, had been
commissioned. Series production most likely ceased in 2005 and
it was expected to have transitioned to the YUAN-Class SS. There
141
are two YUANs in the PLA(N); a third is expected to be launched
in 2008. The YUAN appears to be of indigenous design and
incorporate features of the SONG and KILO classes, including
a teardrop-shaped hull, which suggests a pressurized double hull
construction. In addition, it is speculated that the YUAN is fitted
with an air-independent propulsion system. The MING-Class SS
has gradually replaced the ROMEO-Class SS, which are nearing
the end of their operational lives.
China is also constructing the SHANG-Class SSN. This subma-
rine is expected to replace the older HAN-Class SSNs. In addi-
tion to the SONG SS, it will be capable of firing a C801-derived
submerged-launched cruise missile. There are two SHANG-Class
units in the PLA(N); three more are expected to be constructed.
Work continues on China’s new SSBN program, the JIN-Class.
The first of the class is likely undergoing sea trials before being
deployed in 2008. Four more JINs are likely to be constructed. It
is estimated that the JIN SSBN will be able to carry 12 MIRVed
JL-2-type (CSS-NX-4) submarine-launched ballistic missiles,
which carry multiple independently targetable re-entry vehicles
and have a range of 8,000 kilometers (4,900 miles).
Surface Ships. An aircraft carrier, whether purchased or
constructed, continues to have a place in China’s long-term
strategic planning. In 2002, China acquired the ex-VARYAG-
Class aircraft carrier from Ukraine. Since 2002, some repair
work has been done on the platform, but it is still unclear whether
it will become an operational platform or be used for research
and development. China is also modernizing its coastal defense
forces with production of the HOUBEI-Class PTG, a new, high-
speed catamaran intended to replace the aging OSA-Class PTG.
China has also expanded its naval strike capabilities with the
acquisition of four SOVREMENNYY-Class DDG from Russia.
142
The SOVREMENNYYs are armed with eight launchers for the
sea-skimming SS-N-22 (SUNBURN) surface-to-surface missile,
which has a range of 120 to 160 kilometers (75 to 100 miles), two
SA-N-7B (GRIZZLY) surface-to-air missile (SAM) launchers with
(GADFLY) missiles, and two twin 130-millimeter AK-130 guns.
China has also bought Russia’s long-range naval SAM, the SA-N-
20, for deployment onboard the two LUZHOU-Class DDGs, and
has completed development of its own long-range naval SAM, the
HHQ-9. The HHQ-9 is equipped onboard the LUYANG II-Class.
Air. The PLANAF also strengthened its maritime strike capabil-
ity with the acquisition of the Russian Su-30MK2 (FLANKER) in
2004, a platform with more capable weapons.
Coastal Defense Forces
Coastal Defense Forces are organized into 25 coastal defense
regions containing 35 to 40 independent artillery and surface-to-
surface missile regiments. Coastal defense units are deployed in
and around naval bases, offshore islands, and other vulnerable
military sites. Equipment includes semimobile 85-, 100-, and
130- mm coastal guns (most located in hardened sites) and
HY-1 and HY-2 STYX-derived antiship missiles. Most SSMs
are semimobile. Coastal defense divisions are at Fuzhou, Jinan,
Shenyang, Guangzhou, and Nanjing.
PLA(N) Marines
Mission
The PLA(N) Marines conduct amphibious operations and provide
a land operations force for a fleet; coordinate with a fleet in seizing/
defending the PLA(N)’s forward bases; take part in the land com-
bat of a naval campaign; coordinate with other services to develop
143
tactics, techniques, and equipment for amphibious operations; and
carry out coastal defense.
As the advance amphibious operations force, the PLA(N) Marines
missions include seizing and consolidating beachheads, destroying
the enemy at beachheads and adjacent areas, organizing landing
duties, and supporting the Army’s main force landing, continuing
on to launch its offense. Other missions include conducting surprise
attacks and occupying enemy’s naval bases, seaports, and islands;
build beachhead protective zones; and cover the landing force as it
spreads from the enemy coast.
Organization
The PLA(N) Marines are subordinate to the Navy. There are two
PLA(N) Marine Brigades deployed to the South Sea Fleet. The 1
st
and 164
th
Marine Brigades are located in Zhanjiang along with a
unit of amphibious landing ships. In peacetime this marine force
Amphibious Landing Exercise
144
is brigade sized and is equipped with amphibious tanks and ar-
mored personnel carriers for amphibious landings. In war, the re-
serve cadres would increase fighting strength to eight divisions
of 24 infantry, eight armored, eight artillery and two independent
tank regiments.
Personnel
The combined strength of both brigades is estimated at 8,000 to
10,000 Marines.
Capabilities
China is continuing to improve its capabilities to conduct amphibious
and airborne operations within the region. Its fleet of more than 100
ships (plus more than 230 in reserve) and 500 minor landing craft
conducts modest-sized training exercises in coastal regions. Although
China has never conducted exercises with fully coordinated with air
support and airborne operations, its amphibious force is believed
capable of landing at least one division on a beach.
Equipment
PLA(N) Marines has the new Type-63A amphibious tanks and the
new Type-63C amphibious APCs. Marine units are also receiving
a new version of the Type WZ 501, based on the Soviet BMP-1,
equipped with a wave cutter and an outboard motor. The Type 63A
tank, Type-63C was featured in the amphibious assault portion of
“Peace Mission 2005.” It is possible that the Marines may even-
tually receive the new AIFV in advanced development that uses
the 100 mm gun/missile launcher of the Russian BMP-3M. Once
shore positions are secured, LSTs can then land Type-83 122 mm
self-propelled howitzers. Marine infantry also use the new Type-
95 “bullpup” 5.8 mm assault rifles.
145
China is improving its amphibious operation capabilities. In the
past 2 years, its fleet of about 60 medium-sized LSTs and LSMs
has been supplemented by two new classes of LST/LSMs. It is
expected that 15 LST/LSMs will be built. Mid-2006, Russian
reports indicated that the Almaz shipyard will produce up to six
of the unique large ZUBR assault hovercraft for the PLA(N). The
60-knot-speed ZUBR can carry 3 medium tanks, or 10 tracked or
wheeled APCs, or 140 troops and 130 tons of cargo. The PLA(N)
may also be building its first large LDP capable of carrying a new
LCAC-style hovercraft and Z-8 size assault helicopters.
Paramilitary Forces
Militia units facilitate the mobilization and deployment of active-
duty units and provide rear-area security and civil defense. The
mission of the militia force varies considerably by region and by
the specialties of the individual militia members. The mission for
the militia components is defined in the National Defense Law:
Under the command of military organs, militia units shall perform
combat-readiness duty, carry out defensive fighting tasks, and
assist in maintaining the public order. In recent years, the reserves
and militia have been more active in disaster relief efforts and in
providing humanitarian aid.
People’s Armed Police
Mission
The mission of the People’s Armed Police (PAP) is to safeguard
China’s national security by maintaining public order and internal
security for the PRC. The PAP can be employed independently by
the Central Military Commission (CMC) in times of internal crisis.
It is task-organized to provide a mix of capabilities from special
combat support augmenting more traditional police forces to bor-
146
der security, anti-smuggling operations and counterinsurgency. The
secondary mission of the PAP is to augment the PLA in war time.
Organization
The PAP’s estimated 1,500,000 personnel are organized into three
types of units: an internal security force of 45 divisions; a second
force of 186,000 personnel that has a border and coastal control
mission; and a third force of 69,000 personnel that protects key
PAP Forces on Patrol
147
national infrastructure sites. The PAP is organized and run along
military provisions. Its general headquarters has three departments
responsible for operational, political and logistical matters.
Unlike the vertical leadership of the PLA units, the armed police
force falls under the dual leadership of the State Council and the
Central Military Commission. In a combat situation, the armed
police corps is under the unified command of the CMC.
Capabilities
The PAP’s primary peacetime role is to maintain social stability
and order, guarding critical buildings and infrastructure, and aid-
ing disaster relief operation (for instance forest fires and floods).
The major task of the armed police during wartime is to work with
local military units, the reserve force, and militia as well as with
public and government security departments. During war, the PAP
guards the borders, protects major government organizations and
PAP Forces on Parade
148
important civil targets, safeguards social order, deals with major
unexpected incidents, and disrupts enemy information flow.
Equipment
In 2000, armed police units that shouldered the task of participat-
ing in military operations were equipped with various advanced
heavy field weaponry and light weaponry. In addition, they inten-
sified their training in anti-guerrilla warfare in the cities.
All armed police units are being equipped with an array of sophis-
ticated weaponry, including new purpose-developed armored ve-
hicles, amphibious vehicles, new-type lethal and non-lethal weap-
ons, high-precision guns, and high-performance antimob shields
for police use. The PAP has also begun acquiring helicopters.
Public Security Police
Mission
Mainland Chinese police functions cover a wider range of
missions than any police in the world. All functions are performed
by specific types of police officers trained and assigned to their
respective fields. The following are responsibilities of the PSP:
To prevent, stop, and investigate criminal offenses.
■
To maintain social order and prevent activities that threaten ■
civil order.
To enforce traffic safety regulations and deal with traffic
■
accidents.
To organize, implement, and supervise fire prevention and ■
fire fighting.
To guard people, institutions, and other facilities designated
■
by the state.
To control and supervise rallies, parades, and demonstrations.
■
149
To execute penalties to the offenders sentenced to control, ■
criminal detention, deprivation of political rights and offenders
who serve their sentences outside prisons; supervise offenders
serving suspended sentences and offenders on parole.
To monitor and administer security and protect national critical ■
infrastructure relating to computer and information networks.
Organization
The PRC’s national police system consists of 5 components: the
public security police, state security police, the correctional (prison)
police, judicial police in people’s procurators (state prosecutors) and
judicial police in the people’s courts. Each component force performs
specifically designed functions with its own organizational structure.
Personnel
The PSP consists of approximately 625,000 police officers.
PSP Officer (left) and PAP Soldier on Patrol
150
Capabilities
At the local level, PSP forces are quite competent in fulfilling
their community policing role and addressing minor criminal and
traffic violations. However, China’s national police has been more
focused on internal security and control of the population than on
crime and law enforcement.
With increased emphasis on quality recruitment and professional
training, the PSP is gradually improving its capabilities to
investigate and prosecute more sophisticated types of crime. As
Chinese economic reforms progress, police and law enforcement
agencies, with the help of legislation, are transitioning toward
more traditional duties and capabilities. Through research and
studies in social sciences, PSP forces are identifying requirements
and modernizing their roles, functions and capabilities to meet the
needs of the emerging market economy. This has shifted emphasis
away from the more administrative duties and toward expanding
the scope of criminal investigation to include organized crime,
corruption, fraud, narcotics.
Weapons of Mass Destruction
In 1955, Mao Zedong’s Chinese Communist Party decided to
proceed with a nuclear weapons program; it was developed with
Soviet assistance until 1960. After it s first nuclear test in October
1964, Beijing deployed a modest but potent ballistic missile
force, including land- and sea-based, intermediate-range, and
intercontinental ballistic missiles.
China became a major international arms exporter during the
1980s. Beijing joined the Middle East arms control talks, which
began in July 1991 to establish global guidelines for conventional
arms transfers, but announced in September 1992 that it would no
151
longer participate because of the U.S. decision to sell F-16A/B
aircraft to Taiwan.
China was the first state to pledge “no first use” of nuclear
weapons. It joined the International Atomic Energy (IAEA) in
1984 and pledged to abstain from further atmospheric testing
of nuclear weapons in 1986. China acceded to the nuclear Non-
Proliferation Treaty (NPT) in 1992 and supported its indefinite
and unconditional extension in 1995. In 1996, it signed the
Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty (CTBT) and agreed to seek an
international ban on the production of fissile nuclear weapons
material. China has not ratified the CTBT.
In 1996, China committed not to provide assistance to un-
safeguarded nuclear facilities. China attended the May 1997
meeting of the NPT Exporters (Zangger) Committee as an
observer and became a full member in October 1997. The Zangger
Committee is a group that meets to list items that should be
subject to IAEA inspections if exported by countries that have,
as China has, signed the Non-Proliferation Treaty. In September
1997, China issued detailed nuclear export control regulations.
China began implementing regulations establishing controls over
nuclear-related dual-use items in 1998. China also decided not to
engage in a renewed nuclear cooperation with Iran (even under
safeguards), and will complete existing cooperation, which is
not of proliferation concern, within a relatively short period. In
May 2004, with the support of the United States, China became a
member of the Nuclear Suppliers Group.
Based on significant, tangible progress with China on nuclear
nonproliferation, President Clinton in 1998 took steps to bring
into force the 1985 U.S.-China Agreement on Peaceful Nuclear
Cooperation.
152
Chemical Weapons
China is not a member of the Australia Group, an informal and
voluntary arrangement made in 1985 to monitor developments in
the proliferation of dual-use chemicals and to coordinate export
controls on key dual-use chemicals and equipment with weapons
applications. In April 1997, however, China ratified the Chemical
Weapons Convention (CWC) and, in September 1997, promulgat-
ed a new chemical weapons export control directive. In October
2002, China promulgated updated regulations on dual-use chemi-
cal agents, and now controls all the major items on the Australia
Group control list.
Missiles
Although it is not a member of the Missile Technology Control
Regime (MTCR), the multinational effort to restrict the prolifera-
tion of missiles, in March 1992 China undertook to abide by MTCR
guidelines and parameters. China reaffirmed this commitment in
1994, and pledged not to transfer MTCR-class ground-to-ground
missiles. In November 2000, China committed not to assist in any
way the development by other countries of MTCR-class missiles.
However, in August 29, 2003, the U.S. government imposed mis-
sile proliferation sanctions lasting two years on the Chinese com-
pany China North Industries Corporation (NORINCO) after de-
termining that it was knowingly involved in the transfer of equip-
ment and technology controlled under Category II of the Missile
Technology Control Regime (MTCR) Annex that contributed to
MTCR-class missiles in a non-MTCR country.
In December 2003, the PRC promulgated comprehensive new
export control regulations governing exports of all categories of
sensitive technologies
153
HONG KONG
KEY FACTS
Official Name. Hong Kong Special Administrative Region (SAR)
Short Form. Hong Kong
National Flag. Red with a white Bauhinia flower in the center.
Time Zone. UTC (formerly GMT) +8 hours
Head of Government.
Chief Executive Donald Tsang
Telephone Country Code. 0852
Population. 7 million (July 2008)
Languages. Chinese (Cantonese), English; both are official
Currency. Hong Kong Dollar (HK$)
Exchange Rate. HK$7.80 = US$1 (2007)
Hong Kong Flag
154
U.S. MISSION
U.S. Consulate, Hong Kong
Location 26 Garden Road, Hong Kong
Mailing Address PSC 461, Box 5, FPO AP 96521-0006
Telephone (852) 2523-9011
Fax (852)2845-1598
E-mail uscghk@pacific.net.hk
Hours Monday – Friday
0830 to 1230 and 1330 to 1730
Entry Requirements
Passport/Visa Requirements
A visa is not required for tourist visits of up to 90 days by U.S.
citizens. An extension may be granted upon application to the
Hong Kong SAR Immigration Department. Visas are required
to work or study in Hong Kong. U.S. Citizens should obtain all
required visas before departing the United States. Specifically,
U.S. citizens wishing to travel to the PRC from Hong Kong require
a PRC visa and should apply at the PRC Embassy or consulates in
the United States.
GEOGRAPHY
Geography
Boundaries
The South China Sea borders Hong Kong to the South, East, and
West. China borders Hong Kong to the north.
155
Land Statistics
Area, Total 1,092 square kilometers (422 square miles)
Hong Kong Intl.
Airport (Kai Tak)
Kowloon
Victoria
Tsuen Wan
Aberdeen
Kwun
Tong
Nanlang
Tangjia
Zhuhai
Qianshan
Ninping
Wanzai
Coloane
Tai O
Ma Wan
Chung
Mui Wo
Tuen
Mun
Yuen
Long
Shekou
Chek Chue
(Stanley)
Hoi Ha
Sai O
Sai
Kung
Sha Tin
Tai Po
Fanling
Lo Wu
Shatoujiao
Shenzhen
Lak Ma
Chau
Xixiang
Nantou
Heng Men
Hau Hoi Wan
(Deep Bay)
Lingding
Yang
Zhujiang
Kou
South China Sea
Tai Pang Wan
(Mirs Bay)
Xili
(Reservoir)
Shenzhen
(Reservoir)
Lema Channel
Plover Cove
Reservoir
Hong Kong Island
Beijian Dao
Dawanshen Dao
Yuejiawei
Dangan
Dao
Zhiwan
Dao
Wailingding
Dao
Dahengqin
Dao
IIha de
Coloane
IIha
de
Taipa
Neilingding
Dao
Tai Yue
Shan
Shek
Kwu
Chau
Cheung
Chau
Poi Toi Group
Tung Lung
Island
Tiu
Chang
Chau
Tai Po Hoi
Ping Chau
Tap Mun
Chau
Kat O
Chau
Tsing
Yi
Chek Lap
Kok Island
Soko Islands
Pok Liu
Chau
Basalt
Island
Macau
CHINA
CHINA
HONG KONG
MACAU
22° 00'
114° 30'
114° 00'
113 ° 30'
22° 30'
International Border
Metropolitian Area
Secondary Cities
Primary Roads
Railroads
Tunnels
Causeways
Dam
Airport
0
5 10 km
0
10 mi
5
Hong Kong and Macau
Hong Kong and Macau
156
Comparative About six times the size of Washington, DC
Land 1,042 square kilometers (402 square miles)
Water 50 square kilometers (19 square miles)
TRANSPORTATION AND COMMUNICATION
Transportation
Roads
Hong Kong’s roads have one of the highest vehicle densities in
the world. At the end of 2004, there were more than 600,000
licensed vehicles using about 1,831 kilometers of road. This high
vehicle density, combined with difficult terrain and high density
building development, causes traffic congestion and poses a
Boundary representations are not necessarily authoritative.
KOWLOON
VICTORIA
NEW
TERRITORIES
LAMMA
ISLAND
HONG KONG
ISLAND
LANTAO
ISLAND
Zhujiang
Kou
South
China
Sea
Tai Pang
Wan
Hau Hoi
Wan
Daya Wan
CHINA
CHINA
Hong Kong
International
Airport
Chek Lap Kok
Airport
Hong Kong
International Border
Road
Railroad
Airport
5
5
10
15 km
10 mi
0
0
Hong Kong Transportation Network
157
constant challenge to transport planning, road construction, and
maintenance. To alleviate this problem, numerous road projects
are underway and more are planned.
Because taxis, buses, and the subway are readily available,
relatively inexpensive, and generally safe, they are recommended
over driving. Those who drive should be aware that traffic moves
on the left. Most roads in Hong Kong are narrow and poorly
marked. Those involved in traffic accidents are automatically
tested for alcohol influence.
Rail
Hong Kong is serviced by several public passenger rail ways.
The Mass Transit Railway (MTR) is an underground railway
Hong Kong Traffic
158
network with six lines and 50 stations. It is operated by the MTR
Corporation Limited. The six lines were built in stages beginning
in 1979 with the most recent being completed in August 2002. The
railway totals 87.7 kilometers. The East Rail is 35.5 kilometers
long and connects East Tsim Sha Tsui in Kowloon with Lo Wu.
There are 14 stations that carry about 800,000 passengers daily.
Ma On Shan Rail is operated by the Kowloon-Canton Railway
Corporation. It came into service in December 2004. It runs over
a length of 11.4 kilometers and comprises nine stations.
The West Rail is operated by the Kowloon-Canton Railway Corp.
It came into operation December 2003 and also has 9 stations. It is
a 30.5 kilometers twin passenger railway linking up Nam Cheong
in West Kowloon with Yuen Long and Tuen Mun in the north-
Hong Kong Mass Transit Railway
159
west territories. The light rail opened in 1988 and is operated by
the Kowloon Canton Railway Corporation. The light rail network
extends to 36.2 kilometers of double track, with 68 stops and a fleet
of 119 single-deck light rail vehicles. The system is supported by
feeder bus services. In 2004, about 360,000 passengers traveled
daily in the system.
Air
The Hong Kong International Airport (HKIA) opened for
commercial operations in 1998. It is a vital component of Hong
Kong’s economy serving both tourism and commerce as an
important regional trans-shipment center, passenger hub and
gateway to other Chinese cities. The airport operates around-the-
clock and is capable of handling 45 million passengers and three
million tons of cargo a year.
There are some 78 international airlines providing about 5,300
scheduled passenger and all-cargo flights each week between Hong
Kong and some 140 destinations worldwide. The Civil Aviation
Department is responsible for the provision of air traffic control
services, certification of Hong Kong registered aircraft, monitoring
of airlines on their compliance with bilateral Air Services
Agreements, and the regulation of general civil aviation activities.
Maritime
Hong Kong owns 1,649 ships (1,000 GRT or larger) Many
passenger boats between Hong Kong and other cities have been
phased out due to the competition with rail and air transportation.
The remaining coastal boats depart from the China Hong Kong
City ferry terminal in Kowloon. Jet powered catamarans and
hovercrafts, however, travel between Hong Kong and destinations
on the Zhu Jiang (Pearl River) Delta, as well as to Zhuhai and
160
Macau. There are 11 ferry operators providing 26 regular licensed
passenger ferry services to outlying island and across the Harbour.
In 2004, ferry passengers amounted to 56.7 million.
Communication
Hong Kong’s communication system is one of the most technically
advanced and competitive in the Asia-Pacific region. Its fully
digitized communications infrastructure is a result of and continues
to bolster Hong Kong’s position as the leading business, financial,
and communications center in the region.
In 2003, the telephone density was 56 exchange lines per 100
population—one of the highest in the world. Also serving Hong
Victoria Harbor, Hong Kong
161
Kong’s needs in data communications were more than 491,195
dedicated facsimile lines. The communications infrastructure
provides excellent domestic and international services. The
infrastructure includes microwave radio relay links and extensive
fiber-optic networks; three satellite earth stations, three Intel
Sat (one Pacific Ocean and two Indian Ocean); coaxial cable to
Guangzhou, China; access to five international submarine cables
providing connections to ASEAN member nations, Japan, Taiwan,
Australia, Middle East, and Western Europe. There are 3,801,300
telephone main lines in use and 7,241,400 mobile cellular
telephones in use in Hong Kong.
Nearly every household and commercial building is covered by the
broadband network. The number of broadband accounts increased
significantly during 2005 totaling 1,648,409 or 23.6 broadband
accounts per 100 inhabitants, representing an annual increase of
11 percent. In addition, 65.6 percent of households had broadband
Internet access. Internet Service Providers (ISPs) numbered 286 at
year-end. There are 800,834 (2006 est.) internet hosts and 4.879
million (2005 est.) internet users.
Mass Media
Hong Kong’s mass media at the end of 2005 included 49 daily
newspapers, numerous electronic newspapers, 722 periodicals,
two free television program service licensees, three domestic
pay television licensees, 13 non-domestic television program
licensees, one government funded public broadcaster and two
sound broadcasting licensees.
The availability of the latest telecommunications technology
and keen interest in Hong Kong’s affairs have attracted many
international news agencies, newspapers with international
162
readership and overseas broadcasting corporations to establish
regional headquarters or representative offices in Hong Kong.
The successful regional publications produced in Hong Kong
underscore its important position as a financial, industrial, trading
and communications center.
Hong Kong has five AM radio broadcast stations, nine FM radio
broadcast stations, and four television broadcast stations. Hong
Kong’s television viewers have access to more than 159 domestic
and non-domestic television program service channels in various
languages. These include four free-to-air terrestrial TV channels,
130 pay TV channels and a variety of free-to-air satellite channels.
Newspapers and Magazines
At the end of 2005, the Hong Kong press included 23 Chinese-
language dailies, 13 English-language dailies (one of them in
Braille and one Internet edition), eight bilingual dailies and five in
other languages. Of the Chinese-language dailies, 17 cover mainly
local and overseas general news, five specialize in finance, and the
rest cover horse racing.
The larger papers include overseas Chinese communities in their
distribution networks, and some have editions printed outside
Hong Kong, in particular in the United States, Canada, the United
Kingdom and Australia.
CULTURE
Society
People
Hong Kong’s population has increased steadily over the past
decade, reaching about 6.9 million in 2004. Hong Kong is one
163
of the most densely populated areas in the world, with an overall
density of approximately 6,380 people per square kilometer.
Cantonese, the official Chinese language in Hong Kong, is spoken
by most of the population. English, also an official language,
is widely understood and spoken by more than one-third of the
population. Religion is practiced freely in Hong Kong.
All children are required by law to be in school full time between
the ages of 6 and 15. Preschool education for most children begins
at age 3. Primary school normally begins at the age of 6 and
lasts for 6 years. By age 12, children progress to a 3-year course
of junior secondary education. Following 3 years of secondary
education, most stay on for a 2-year senior secondary course, while
others join full-time vocational training. More than 90 percent
of children complete upper secondary education or equivalent
vocational education.
Statistics
Population 6,980,412 (2007 est.)
Growth rate 0.561% (2007 est.)
Age Structure
0–14 years 13%
15–64 years 74%
65 years and older 13% (2007 est.)
Gender Ratio male(s)/female
At birth 1.08
Under 15 years 1.09
15–64 years 0.95
65 years and older 0.87
Total population 0.96
164
Ethnic Groups
Chinese 95 percent, other 5 percent
Cultural Considerations
Over the years, Hong Kong has developed as a unique society
based on Chinese tradition and Western technology. It is a society
that practices religious and racial tolerance. It is also a society that
emphasizes hard work and success.
Etiquette
Americans encounter few cultural problems when traveling
or working in Hong Kong due to Hong Kong’s history of
British influence. Americans should be aware that Hong Kong
people tend to be more formal than many Americans. Business
acquaintances are addressed as Mr. or Ms., unless they state that
their first name should be used. Business cards are exchanged
frequently and the exchange should be fairly formal; card
should be accepted with both hands and a moment taken to read
it carefully. Areas of disagreement should be handled tactfully
and indirectly to avoid embarrassing people; in Hong Kong, the
people are very proud.
Though a study of local customs and practices may be helpful,
most people in Hong Kong are sufficiently familiar with Western
customs that they are tolerant of cultural differences. Business
contacts should be treated the same as a formal business relationship
in the United States. Western business attire is appropriate. Most
Hong Kong business executives speak excellent English, and are
accustomed to dealing with Westerners.
165
HISTORY
In the late 19
th
century and early 20
th
centuries, Hong Kong
developed as a warehousing and distribution center for UK
trade with southern China. After the end of World War II and the
communist takeover of Mainland China in 1949, hundreds of
thousands of people fled from China to Hong Kong. Hong Kong
became an economic success and a manufacturing, commercial,
finance, and tourism center. High life expectancy, literacy, per
capita income, and other socioeconomic measures attest to Hong
Kong’s achievements over the past five decades.
On 1 July 1997, China resumed the exercise of sovereignty over
Hong Kong, ending more than 150 years of British colonial rule.
Hong Kong is a Special Administrative Region of the People’s
Republic of China with a degree of autonomy in all matters except
foreign and defense affairs. According to the Sino-British Joint
Declaration (1984) and the Basic Law, Hong Kong will retain
its political, economic, and judicial systems and unique way of
life for 50 years after reversion and will continue to participate
in international agreements and organizations under the name,
“Hong Kong, China.”
GOVERNMENT AND POLITICS
Government
The Hong Kong Special Administrative Region (SAR) is headed
by Chief Executive Donald Tsang, who officially took office on
21 June 2005 after China’s State Council announced its approval.
Former Chief Executive Tung Chee Hwa is vice-chairman of the
National People’s Political Consultative Conference.
166
Foreign Relations
Hong Kong’s foreign relations are the responsibility of China.
Hong Kong is an independent customs territory and economic
entity separate from the rest of China and is able to enter into
international agreements on its own behalf in commercial
and economic matters. Hong Kong, independently of China,
participates as a full member of numerous international economic
organizations including the World Trade Organization (WTO),
the Asia Pacific Economic Cooperation forum (APEC), and the
Financial Action Task Force (FATF).
ECONOMY
Economic Statistics
GDP US$293.4 billion (2007 est.)
Growth 5.8%
per Capita US$42,000
Inflation Rate 2%
Debt US$549.7 billion
Unemployment 4%
Imports US$371.3 billion
Exports US$353.3 billion f.o.b., including reexports
Labor Force 3.65 million
Hong Kong is one of the world’s most open and dynamic
economies. Hong Kong has numerous economic strengths,
including accumulated public and private wealth from decades
of unprecedented growth, a sound banking system, a strong legal
system, and an able and rigorously enforced anti-corruption regime.
The need for economic restructuring poses difficult challenges and
167
choices for the government. Hong Kong is endeavoring to improve
its attractiveness as a commercial and trading center, especially
after China’s entry into the World Trade Organization (WTO), and
continues to refine its financial architecture.
On the International front, Hong Kong is a separate and active
member of the WTO and the Asia Pacific Economic Cooperation
(APEC) forum, where it is an articulate and effective champion
of free markets and the reduction of trade barriers. Hong Kong
residents across the political spectrum supported China’s accession
to the WTO, believing this would open new opportunities on the
Mainland for local firms and stabilize relationships between Hong
Kong’s two most important trade and investment partners, the
United States and China.
168
MACAU
KEY FACTS
Official Name. Macau Special Administrative Region
Short Form. Macau
National Flag. Light green background with a white lotus above
a stylized bridge and water, beneath an arch of five stars; one large
star and four smaller ones as on the flag of the PRC
Time Zone. UTC (formerly GMT) +8 hours
Telephone Country Code. 0853
Population. 456,989 (2007 est.)
Languages. Cantonese 87.9%, Hokkien 4.4%, Mandarin 1.6%,
other Chinese dialects 3.1%, other 3% (2001 census)
Currency. Pataca (M$)
Exchange Rate. M$7.99 = US$1
Macau Flag
169
ENTRY REQUIREMENTS
Passport/Visa Requirements
Valid passports are required. Passports should be valid for 30
days beyond the intended period of stay in Macau. Because
many neighboring areas require 6 months validity remaining on
the passport, U.S. citizens planning travel beyond Macau should
ensure that their passports are valid for at least 6 months from the
date of their proposed entry into such areas. A visa is not required
for tourist visits of up to 30 days.
GEOGRAPHY
Boundaries
Macau is bordered by China to the North, and the South China Sea.
Land Statistics
Area, Total 25.4 square kilometers (9.5 square miles)
Comparative
Less than one-sixth the size of Washington, DC
Land 25.4 square kilometers (9.5 square miles)
Water None
TRANSPORTATION AND COMMUNICATION
Transportation
Roads
There are 345 kilometers (214 miles) of paved roads in Macau.
Traffic moves on the left, and roads are narrow and winding. On
170
the Macau peninsula,
roads are congested
throughout the day,
and driving is not rec-
ommended. Taxis are
plentiful and inexpen-
sive, as are public bus-
es. Visitors may travel
by bus when transiting
between Guangzhou,
China, and Macau.
Air
The Macau International
Airport serves Macau. It
has more than 3,047 me-
ters (9,997 feet) of paved
runway. It provides a
convenient connection
to the China border al-
lowing easy access to
numerous provinces in
Southern China.
Maritime
Most visitors travel to
and from Macau by
boat. There are a va-
riety of craft such as
jetfoils, turbocats (jet-
powered catamarans), and high-speed ferries. A one-way trip to
Hong Kong takes 1 hour.
South China Sea
Zhujiang
Kou
Coloane
Taipa
CHINA
CHINA
CHINA
CHINA
Xiaohengqin
Dao
Ilha de Coloane
Ilha da Taipa
Macau
Bridge
Taxiway
Causeway
Taxiway
Bridge
Breakwater
Government
House
Macau
National Capital
Admin Capital
Other City
International Border
Road
Airport
2 miles
2 kilometers
0
0
1
1
Macau
171
Communication
The telephone system has fairly modern communication facilities
maintained for domestic and international services. There were
approximately 174,600 main telephone lines in use in 2003 and
364,000 mobile cellular telephones in use.
CULTURE
Statistics
Population 456,989 (2007 est.)
Growth Rate 0.841%
Age Structure
0–14 years 15%
15–64 years 77%
65 years and over 8% (2007 est.)
Gender ratio male(s)/female
At birth 1.05
Under 15 years 1.07
15–64 years 0.91
65 years and older 0.73
Total population 0.92
Society
People
Macau’s population is 95.7 percent Chinese, primarily Cantonese
and some Hakka, both from nearby Guangdong Province. The re-
mainder is of Portuguese or mixed Chinese Portuguese ancestry.
Official languages are Portuguese and Chinese (Cantonese). English
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is spoken in tourist areas. Macau has 10 higher education institu-
tions, including the University of Macau; 85.5 percent of the univer-
sity’s 4,700 students are local and 14.5 percent are from overseas.
HISTORY
Initially, the Portuguese developed Macau’s port as a trading post
for China-Japan trade and as a staging port on the long voyage from
Lisbon, Portugal to Nagasaki, Japan. When Chinese officials banned
direct trade with Japan in 1547, Macau’s Portuguese traders carried
goods between Portugal and Japan. When the first Portuguese gover-
nor was appointed to Macau in 1680, Chinese authorities continued
to assert their control by collecting land and customs taxes from the
local Portuguese population. Portuguese citizens continued to pay
rent to Chinese authorities until 1849, when Portuguese abolished
the Chinese customs house and declared Macau’s “independence.”
Chinese authorities retaliated and subsequently assassinated the
Portuguese Governor Ferreira do Amaral.
On 26 March 1887, the Manchu government acknowledged
the Portuguese right of “perpetual occupation.” The Manchu-
Portuguese agreement, known as the Protocol of Lisbon, was
signed on the condition that Portugal would never surrender
Macau to a third party without China’s permission.
Macau enjoyed a brief period of economic prosperity during World
War II as the only neutral port in South China, after Japanese oc-
cupation of Guangzhou (Canton) and Hong Kong. However in
1943, Japan created a virtual protectorate over Macau. Japanese
domination ended in August 1945.
When the Chinese communists came to power in 1949, they de-
clared the Protocol of Lisbon invalid declaring it an “unequal trea-
ty” imposed by foreigners on China. Due to wartime destruction
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and postwar repairs, Beijing requested maintenance of “the status
quo” of the Protocol of Lisbon until the China government could
settle the treaty question at a more appropriate time. Beijing took
a similar position on treaties relating to Hong Kong.
Riots broke out in 1966 when pro-communist Chinese elements
and the Macau police clashed. The Portugal government reached
an agreement with China to end the flow of refugees from China
and to prohibit all communist demonstrations. This move ended
the conflict, and relations between the government and the leftist
organizations became peaceful.
Portugal, under its own stress and having difficulty running its
territories, tried once in 1966 after the riots in Macau, and again
in 1974, the year of a military revolution in Portugal, to return
Macau to Chinese sovereignty. China refused to reclaim Macau
however, hoping to settle the question of Hong Kong first.
Portugal and China established diplomatic relation in 1979. A
year later, Melo Egidio became the first Governor of Macau to
visit mainland China. The visit underscored both parties’ inter-
est in finding a mutually agreeable solution to Macau’s status.
Negotiations between Portugal and China began in 1985, a year
after the signing of the Sino-U.K. agreement returning Hong
Kong to China in 1997. The result was a 1987 agreement returning
Macau to Chinese sovereignty as a Special Administrative Region
(SAR) of China on December 20, 1999.
GOVERNMENT AND POLITICS
Government
The chief executive is appointed by China’s central government
after selection by an election committee, whose members are
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nominated by corporate bodies. The chief executive appears
before a cabinet, the Executive Council (Exco), comprised 7
to 11 members. The latest Exco, appointed on 15 December
2004 has 10 members. The term of office of the chief execu-
tive is 5 years, and no individual may serve for more than two
consecutive terms. The powers are limited from above by the
central government in Beijing, to whom the chief executive
reports directly, and from below (to a more limited extent) by
the legislature.
The legislative organ of the territory is the Legislative Assembly,
a 29-member body of 12 directly elected members, 10 appointed
members representing functional constituencies, and seven mem-
bers appointed by the chief executive. The Legislative Assembly
is responsible for general lawmaking, including taxation, the pass-
ing of the budget, and socioeconomic legislation.
The legal system is based largely on Portuguese law. The ter-
ritory has its own independent judicial system, with a high
court. Judges are selected by a committee and appointed by
the chief executive. Foreign judges may serve on the courts.
Macau has three courts: the Court of the First Instance, the
Court of the Second Instance, and the Court of Final Appeal,
Macau’s highest court.
Foreign Relations
Macau’s foreign relations and defense are the responsibility of
China. China has, however, granted Macau autonomy in econom-
ic and commercial relations.
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ECONOMY
Economic Statistics
GDP US$10 billion (2004)
Growth Rate 2.8% (3rd Quarter 2005)
Per Capita US$22,000 (2004)
Inflation Rate 3.8% (2nd quarter, 2005)
Debt US$3.1 billion (2004)
Unemployment 4.1% (2005)
Imports US$3.478 billion c.i.f. (2004)
Exports US$3.465 billion f.o.b., including reexports
(2004)
Labor Force 251,200 (3rd Quarter, 2005)
Macau’s economy is based largely on tourism, including gambling,
and textile and garment manufacturing. Efforts to diversify have
produced other small industries, such as footwear and machinery
and mechanical appliances. The clothing industry has provided
about three-fourths of export earnings, and it is estimated that the
gambling industry contributed to more than half of China’s GDP
in 2004. More than 16.7 million tourists visited Macau in 2004.
The recent growth in gambling and tourism has been driven pri-
marily by mainland Chinese and Hong Kong tourists.
Macau relies on China for most of its food, fresh water, and en-
ergy imports. The European Union and Hong Kong are the main
suppliers of raw materials and capital goods.