Illinois Wesleyan University
Digital Commons @ IWU Digital Commons @ IWU
Scholarship Hispanic Studies
January 2012
Acquisition of the non-generic de&nite article by Spanish learners Acquisition of the non-generic de&nite article by Spanish learners
of English as a foreign language of English as a foreign language
Christina Isabelli
Illinois Wesleyan University
Rachel Slough
University of Wisconsin - La Crosse
Follow this and additional works at: https://digitalcommons.iwu.edu/hispstu_scholarship
Part of the Anthropological Linguistics and Sociolinguistics Commons, Applied
Linguistics Commons, First and Second Language Acquisition Commons, and the Spanish
Linguistics Commons
Recommended Citation
Isabelli, Christina and Slough, Rachel, "Acquisition of the non-generic de8nite article by
Spanish learners of English as a foreign language" (2012).
Scholarship
. 19.
https://digitalcommons.iwu.edu/hispstu_scholarship/19
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Acquisition of the non-generic definite article
by Spanish learners of English as a foreign
language
Christina Isabelli-García
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(>?7RD>*G:5RD>
Rachel Slough
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(>?7RD>*G:5RD>
Abstract
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RA45:5?A*7=?586A*the*@F*O+*6A7=:A=>I*;<56A7:*M:5HA=>5?F*>?MRA:?>*8DZV6A?AR*
7*bMA>?5D::75=A* 8D:?75:5:N*RA6A?AR* D@65N7?D=F*M>A>* D4*theI* ):*766Y* 4DM=*
5RA:?545AR*87?AND=5A>*><DQAR*?D*<7HA*R544A=A:?*788M=78F*=7?A>I*#4*?<A*4DM=*
87?AND=5A>Y*?<A*D:A*ZD>?*>5Z567=*?D*?<A*O.*Q7>*?<A*6A7>?*R54458M6?*?D*78bM5=A*
Q<56A*?<A*ZD>?*R544A=A:?*=A>M6?AR*7>*?<A*ZD>?*R54458M6?I*a<5>*8D:8M=>*Q5?<*
D?<A=*=A>A7=8<*7:R*87:*@A*ATV675:AR*@F*O.*=M6A>*?<7?*7=A*?=7:>4A==AR*?D*
?<A*O+I*a<A*D?<A=*?QD*87?AND=5A>*R5R*:D?*><DQ*?<A*>7ZA*78bM5>5?5D:*=7?A*
7>*8DZV7=AR*?D*V=AH5DM>*>?MR5A>*7:R*87::D?*@A*ATV675:AR*@F*O.*?=7:>4A=*
N5HA:*?<7?*@D?<* 67:NM7NA>* ><7=A* ?<A*>7ZA* =M6A>I*a5ZA*>VA:?* >?MRF5:N*
?<A*(:N65><*5:8=A7>A>*788M=78F*=7?A>*78=D>>*766*87?AND=5A>I*c:DQ5:N*?<7?*
R54458M6?F*Q5?<*?<A*RA45:5?A*7=?586A*87:*@A*7??=5@M?AR*?D*O.*5:?A=4A=A:8A*5>*
M>A4M6* Q<A:*5ZV6AZA:?5:N* VAR7NDN5876* =A8DZZA:R7?5D:>* ?D*?A78<*?<A*
(:N65><*7=?586A*>F>?AZI
Keywords:*RA45:5?A*7=?586A*78bM5>5?5D:S*(_OS* O.* ?=7:>4A=S* :D:2NA:A=58*
M>A>S*JV7:5><I
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?<D>A*?<7?*5:86MRA*ZD=A*?FVA>I*_D=*?<A*VM=VD>A>*D4*?<5>*>?MRFY*
Q<58<*75Z>*?D*=AV6587?A*O5M*7:R*B6A7>D:*,+--+0*7:R*B7=8C7*%7FD*
,+--e0Y*QA*5RA:?54F*?<A*:D:2NA:A=58*M>A>*>5Z567=*?D*?<A*7M?<D=>k*
4DM=*87?AND=5A>1*8M6?M=76Y*>5?M7?5D:Y*>?=M8?M=76Y*7:R*?AT?M76I*
a<A*V7=?585V7:?>*5:*O5M*7:R*B6A7>D:k>*,+--+0*>?MRF*=AV=A2
>A:?AR*.e*:7?5HA*67:NM7NA>Y*?<=AA24DM=?<>*D4*Q<58<*QA=A*4=DZ*
:D:*):RD2(M=DVA7:*67:NM7NA>*,>M8<*7>*;<5:A>AY*cD=A7:*7:R*
l7V7:A>A0Y*67:NM7NA>*?<7?*<7HA*R544A=A:?*=M6A>*?<7?*=A>?=58?*?<A*
M>A*D4*theI*a<A*7M?<D=>*>?7?AR*?<7?*>5:8A*?<A*N=DMV*>5`A*D4*?<A*
):RD2(M=DVA7:*67:NM7NA*>VA7fA=>*,67:NM7NA>*?<7?*7=A*ZD=A*>5Z52
67=*?D*(:N65><*Q5?<*=AN7=R>*?D*?<A*M>A*D4*the*@M?*Z7F*Z75:?75:*
>DZA*R544A=A:8A0*Q7>*ZM8<*>Z766A=*?<A5=*h45:R5:N>*Z7F*:D?*@A*
=A657@6Ai*,+--+1*.e0I*a<A*V=A>A:?*>?MRF*M>AR*V7=?585V7:?>*4=DZ*
D:6F*D:A*):RD2(M=DVA7:*67:NM7NA*N=DMVY*JV7:5><Y*>5Z567=*?D*
B7=8C7*%7FD*,+--e0I*a<5>*>?MRFY*<DQAHA=Y*M>AR*V7=?585V7:?>*?<7?*
>VDfA*JDM?<A=:*;D:A*JV7:5><*Q<A=A7>*B7=8C7*%7FDk>*V7=?5852
V7:?>*QA=A*WA:5:>M67=*JV7:5><*,JV75:0I*388D=R5:N*?D*)D:5:*et
alI*,+--e0*JV7:5><2>VA7fA=>*6A7=:5:N*(:N65><*?=7:>4A==AR*?<A*
>AZ7:?58>*D4*JV7:5><*,O.0*D:*?D*(:N65><*,O+0*7=?586A>I*_D=*?<D>A*
(:N65><* RA45:5?A* 7=?586A>* ?<7?* ><7=A* JV7:5><* >AZ7:?58* =M6A>Y*
O.2?=7:>4A=*Z7F*<7HA*766DQAR*?<A*6A7=:A=>*?D*VA=4D=Z*Q5?<*7*
<5N<*788M=78F*=7?AI*
3>*566M>?=7?AR*5:*a7@6A*.Y*?<A*?<=AA*87?AND=5A>*?<7?*><7=A*
?<A*>7ZA*=M6A>*=AN7=R5:N*:D:2NA:A=58*M>A*D4*?<A*RA45:5?A*7=?586A*
7=A*>5?M7?5D:Y*>?=M8?M=76Y*7:R*?AT?M76*M>A>I*
a<A*8M6?M=76*M>A>*>DZA?5ZA>*R544A=*5:*JV7:5><*7:R*(:N65><*
7:R*Q5?<5:*?<A*>7ZA*67:NM7NA*7>*QA66I*_D=*AT7ZV6AY*Q5?<*=AN7=R>*
?D*>DZA*R5>A7>A>Y*65fA*h87:8A=iY*?<A*RA45:5?A*7=?586A*5>*DZ5??AR*
5:*(:N65><* 7:R*JV7:5><1*hJ<A* R5AR*D4* 87:8A=iY* Ella murió de
cáncer. E<56A*Q5?<*?<A* :DM:* hV67NMAi*?<A*7=?586A* 5>*:D?*DZ5?2
?AR*5:*(:N65><*Q<56A*5?*5>*DZ5??AR*5:*JV7:5><I*_D=*AT7ZV6A*?<A*
>A:?A:8A*hJ<A*R5AR* D4* ?<A*V67NMAi*Q7>* >AA:* Q=5??A:*Q5?<*?<A*
4AZ5:5:A*RA45:5?A*7=?586A*la*h… murió de la plaga…i ,hLa peste
negraiY*:IRI0I*3*R544A=A:8A*@A?QAA:*JV7:5><*7:R*(:N65><*AT5>?>*
Q5?<*>DZA*NADN=7V<5876*:7ZA>I*):*(:N65><*?<A*7=?586A*5>*DZ5??AR*
@A4D=A*h67fAi*5:*hO7fA*(A=5A*5>*5:*?<A*G:5?AR*J?7?A>i*@M?*:D?*5:*
JV7:5><*El lago Eerie está en los Estados Unidos.
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1.2. Research questions
a<A*=A>A7=8<*bMA>?5D:>*4D=*?<5>*V=A>A:?*>?MRF*7=A1*,50*E<58<*
D4* ?<A*4DM=* M>A>* D4* ?<A*:D:2NA:A=58* RA45:5?A* 7=?586A* V=A>A:?>*
ZD=A/6A>>*R54458M6?F* 4D=*O+* 6A7=:A=>* D4*(:N65><S*,550*E<A=A*RD*
?<A*R544A=A:8A>*5:* 78bM5>5?5D:*65A*7ZD:N*?<A*4DM=*N=DMV>*7:R*
Q<7?*87:*ATV675:*?<A*R544A=A:8A>S*7:RY*,5550*UD*R544A=A:?*=7?A>*D4*
78bM5>5?5D:*AT5>?*4D=*A78<*M>A*7>*8DZV7=AR*?D*A78<*D?<A=m*EA*
<FVD?<A>5`A*?<7?*@A87M>A*?<A*4DM=*?FVA>*H7=F*8D:>5RA=7@6F*5:*
8D:?AT?*7:R*=M6A*8DZV6AT5?FY*?<AF*Q566*:D?*@A*AbM766F*R54458M6?*4D=*
(JO*>?MRA:?>*7:R*<A:8A*:D?*78bM5=AR*7?*?<A*>7ZA*?5ZAI
2. Methodology
2.1. Participants
a<A*V7=?585V7:?*VDVM67?5D:*Q7>*=A8=M5?AR*4=DZ*?<A*7RM6?*
M:5HA=>5?F*>?MRA:?*VDVM67?5D:*D4*?<A*(:N65><*WAR7NDNF*V=DN=7Z*
7?*7*V=5H7?A*M:5HA=>5?F*5:*;<56AI*a<A*>AHA:?F*V7=?585V7:?>*QA=A*
A:=D66AR* 5:* D:A*D4* ?<A*>A8D:R* ?<=DMN<*454?<* 6AHA6>*D4* (:N65><*
,AT86MR5:N* ?<A* 45=>?* 6AHA60* Q5?<* 7* =AVD=?AR* :7?5HA* 67:NM7NA* D4*
JV7:5><I*366*V7=?585V7:?>*=AVD=?AR*<7H5:N*?7fA:*(:N65><*8DM=>A>*
a3XO(*.
Categorizations of the non-generic definite article
;7?AND=F G>A
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5:*7*>VAA8<*8DZZM:5?FI
a<A*3?67:?58*#8A7:*5>*HA=F*@6MAI
a<A*46M*5>*7*8DZZD:*V<A:DZA:D:*5:*Q5:?A=?5ZAI
J5?M7?5D: G>AR*Q<A:*?<A*=A4A=A:?*D4*7*45=>?2ZA:?5D:*:DM:*87:*@A*
>A:>AR*R5=A8?6F*D=*5:R5=A8?6F*@F*?<A*5:?A=6D8M?D=>I
a<A*?A78<A=*Q7>*6A8?M=5:N*5:*7*<D?*=DDZ*7:R*7>fAR*<5>*
>?MRA:?Y*h;DM6R*FDM*DVA:*?<A*RDD=mi
J?=M8?M=76 G>AR*Q5?<*7*45=>?2ZA:?5D:*:DM:*?<7?*<7>*7*ZDR545A=I
a<A*@678f*RDN*?<7?*Q7>*A7?5:N*7*<D?*RDN*Q7>*Z5:AI
aAT?M76 G>AR*Q5?<*7*:DM:*?<7?*<7>*@AA:*V=AH5DM>6F*=A4A==AR*?D*D=*5>*
=A67?AR*?D*7*V=AH5DM>6F*ZA:?5D:AR*:DM:I
Arturo read a book yesterday. Today, he sold the bookI
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7?*6A7>?*?<=DMN<*?<A5=*4DM=*FA7=>*D4*<5N<*>8<DD6*Q5?<*>DZA*?<7?*
@AN7:*(:N65><*>?MRF*5:*A6AZA:?7=F*>8<DD6I*):*?D?76*?<A=A*QA=A1*
+e*>A8D:R*FA7=*>?MRA:?>S*."*?<5=R*FA7=*>?MRA:?>S*..*4DM=?<*FA7=*
>?MRA:?>Y*7:R*.[*454?<*FA7=*>?MRA:?>I
2.2. Procedures
a<A*R7?728D66A8?5D:*?DD6*Q7>*7*:5:A?F2D:A2>A:?A:8A*bMA>2
?5D::75=A*8D:?75:5:N*>5T?F*RA6A?AR*D@65N7?D=F*M>A>*D4*the*7:RY*7>*
8D:?=D6*5?AZ>Y*4D=?F*`A=D*7=?586A>*Q<A=A*?<A*RA45:5?A*7=?586A*Q7>*
:D?*VA=Z5??ARI*(78<*D4*?<A*>5T?F*RA6A?AR*D@65N7?D=F*M>A>*D4*?<A*
RA45:5?A*7=?586A*4A66*5:?D*D:A*D4*?<A*4DM=*87?AND=5A>1*8M6?M=76Y*>5?M72
?5D:Y*>?=M8?M=76*D=*?AT?M76I*a<A*V7=?585V7:?>*QA=A*7>fAR*?D*7:76F`A*
A78<*>A:?A:8A*7:R*5:>A=?*the*Q<A=A*?<AF*RAAZAR*7VV=DV=57?AI*
34?A=*?<A*bMA>?5D::75=A>*QA=A*8D66A8?AR*7*:MZ@A=*Q7>*7>>5N:AR*
?D*A78<*5:>?7:8A*Q<A=A*?<A*>?MRA:?*><DM6R*<7HA*5:>A=?AR*?<A*
7=?586AI*(78<*5:>?7:8A*Q7>*?<A:*87?AND=5`AR*5:?D*D:A*D4*?<A*4DM=*
87?AND=5A>*7:R*7*>V=A7R><AA?*Q7>*8=A7?AR*Q5?<*?<5>*>?=M8?M=AI*
a<A*R7?7*4=DZ*?<A*bMA>?5D::75=A>*Q7>*8DRAR*7>*h-i*4D=*7*8D==A8?*
5:>A=?5D:*7:R*h.i*4D=*:D*5:>A=?5D:*7:R*?<A=A4D=A*5:8D==A8?I*3:*
5:>?7:8A*D4*:D*5:>A=?5D:*Q7>*67@A6AR*7>*Z5>>AR*7=?586A*M>A*5:*?<A*
=AZ75:RA=*D4*?<A*RD8MZA:?I*):>?7:8A>*D4*5:8D==A8?*5:>A=?5D:*,D=*
DHA=M>A0*QA=A*?7665AR*@M?*:D?*5:86MRAR*5:*?<5>*>?MRF*>5:8A*ZD>?*
DHA=M>A*RA76?*Q5?<*?<A*NA:A=58*M>A*D4*?<A*RA45:5?A*7=?586AY*Q<58<*
Q7>*:D?*5:86MRAR*5:*?<A*>8DVA*D4*?<5>*>?MRFI
JAHA=76*8768M67?5D:>*QA=A*87==5AR*DM?I*3*D:A2Q7F*3$#n3*
ZA7>M=AR*?<A*A44A8?*?<7?*7*>VA85458*87?AND=F*<7R*D:*?<A*=7?A*D4*
Z5>>AR*7=?586A*M>AY*45T5:N*?<A*(:N65><*V=D4585A:8F*6AHA6I*3*D:A2Q7F*
Z5TAR*3$#n3*ZA7>M=AR*?<A*A44A8?*D4*(:N65><*V=D4585A:8F*6AHA6Y*
45T5:N*?<A*87?AND=F*D4*:D:2NA:A=58*RA45:5?A*7=?586A>I*EA*M>AR*7*
?QD2Q7F*Z5TAR*3$#n3*?D*8768M67?A*Q<A?<A=*?<A*87?AND=F*7:R*
(:N65><*V=D4585A:8F*6AHA6*>5N:54587:?6F*744A8?AR*?<A*ZA7:*=7?AI*
EA*8768M67?AR*?<A*ZA7:*=7?A*D4*Z5>>AR*M>A*D4*?<A*RA45:5?A*7=2
?586A*5:*A78<*87?AND=FY*45T5:N*?<A*(:N65><*V=D4585A:8F*6AHA6Y*7:R*
H58A*HA=>7I*EA* ?<A:* M>AR*?<A*aMfAF*ZM6?5V6A*8DZV7=5>D:>*D4*
ZA7:>*?D*8DZV7=A*?<A*R544A=A:8A>*@A?QAA:*?<A*4DM=*87?AND=5A>*
@F*(:N65><*V=D4585A:8F*6AHA6I
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3. Results and discussion
ODDf5:N* 7?* ?<A* ZA7:* =7?A* D4* Z5>>AR*M>A* D4* ?<A* RA45:5?A*
7=?586A*78=D>>*87?AND=5A>Y*?<A*8M6?M=76*87?AND=F*<7R*?<A*<5N<A>?*
=7?A*D4*A==D=>*,I^^"0*Q5?<*?AT?M76*7?*I+\*7:R*?<A*>5?M7?5D:*7:R*
>?=M8?M=76*87?AND=5A>*<7H5:N*?<A*6DQA>?*=7?A*D4*A==D=>Y*I.]+"*7:R*
I."\"*=A>VA8?5HA6FI*a<5>*5>*566M>?=7?AR*5:*_5NM=A*.*7:R*a7@6A*+I*
366*H7=F*>5N:54587:?6F*4=DZ*A78<*D?<A=*,VoI---.0*AT8AV?*@A?QAA:*
?<A*87?AND=5A>*D4*>5?M7?5D:*7:R*>?=M8?M=76I*
_)BGL(*.
Comparison of means of missed obligatory
use of the definite article
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a3XO(*+
Mean rate of missed obligatory use of the definite article
(:N65><*
W=D4585A:8F*OAHA6
;M6?M=76 J5?M7?5D: J?=M8?M=76 aAT?M76
%A7:Y*45TAR*
V=D4585A:8F*6AHA6
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?D*O5N<?@DQ:*,.!e"0*=A>?=M8?M=5:N*76>D*D88M=>*?<=DMN<*7*V=D2
8A>>*D4*RA>?7@565`7?5D:*5:*Q<58<*7:*5:8=A7>A* 5:*A==D=*=7?A*5:*
D:A*7=A7*Z7F*=A46A8?*7:*5:8=A7>A*5:*8DZV6AT5?F*D=*788M=78F*5:*
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;D:86M>5D:>*4=DZ*;7=6M885*et alI*,+--[0*6AR*M>*?D*7>f*54*@782
f?=78f5:NY*7>*>AA:*5:*G2><7VAR*6A7=:5:NY*5>*:A8A>>7=F*?D*78<5AHA*
4M66*VDQA=*D4*76ND=5?<Z58*6A7=:5:NI*a<A*7M?<D=>*>MNNA>?AR*?<7?*
=A?M=:5:N*?D*Q=D:N*8D:qA8?M=A>*8DZV6AZA:?>*?<A*V7=7R5NZ*D4*
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>A=H5:N*?<A*>7ZA*4M:8?5D:>*5:*67:NM7NA*6A7=:5:NI*
4. Conclusions
a<A*4DM=*:D:2NA:A=58*M>A>*D4*?<A*(:N65><*RA45:5?A*7=?586A*
<7HA*R544A=A:?*788M=78F*=7?A>*5:*?<A*VA=4D=Z7:8A*D4*O+*67:NM7NA*
6A7=:A=>Y*Q5?<*?<A*>5?M7?5D:76*87?AND=F*@A5:N*?<A*6A7>?*R54458M6?*
7:R*?<A*8M6?M=76*87?AND=F*@A5:N*?<A*ZD>?*R54458M6?Y*8D:8M==5:N*
Q5?<*8D:86M>5D:>*4=DZ*B7=8C7*%7FD*,+--e0*7:R*O5M*7:R*B6A7>D:*
,+--+0I*#M=*8D:86M>5D:>*4D=*?<A*?QD*D?<A=*87?AND=5A>Y*?AT?M76*7:R*
>?=M8?M=76Y*><DQAR*7*R544A=A:?*788M=78F*=7?AY*R544A=5:N*4=DZ*B7=8C7*
%7FD*7:R*O5M*7:R*B6A7>D:I*3*=A>M6?*QA*45:R*:D?AQD=?<F*5>*5:*
=AN7=R>*?D*O.*?=7:>4A=*?D*O+I*)D:5:*A?*76I*,+--e1*"[-0*>MNNA>?AR*
hO+*6A7=:A=>*Q<D>A*O.*<7>*7=?586A>*?=7:>4A=*7=?586A*>AZ7:?58>*
4=DZ*?<A5=*O.*?D*?<A5=*O+iI*#:*?<A*D:A*<7:RY*?<A*R7?7*>MVVD=?*
O.*?=7:>4A=*?D*O+*Q5?<*?<A*>5?M7?5D:76*7:R*8M6?M=76*87?AND=5A>Y*
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ATV675:AR*@F*O.*?=7:>4A=I*
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7:R*ZD>?*R54458M6?F*,>5?M7?5D:76*7:R*8M6?M=76Y*=A>VA8?5HA6F0*87:*
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>5Z567=*=M6A>*?D*(:N65><*>?=M8?M=A*7:R*?<A*O+*6A7=:A=>*=A>?=M82
?M=A*?<A5=*5:?A=67:NM7NA*H5D67?5:N*N=7ZZ7?5876*V=5:85V76>I*a<A*
6A7>?*R54458M6?*87?AND=F*,>5?M7?5D:760*RDA>*><7=A*>5Z567=*=M6A>*?D*
(:N65><*>?=M8?M=A*7:R*?<A=A4D=A*7*?=7:>4A=*D4*O.*=M6A>*?D*O+*N=7Z2
Z7=*D88M==ARI*a<A*R7?7*4=DZ*?<A>A*?QD*87?AND=5A>*>MVVD=?*?<A*
:D?5D:*?<7?*7=?586A*>AZ7:?58>*7=A*?=7:>4A==AR*4=DZ*?<A*O.*?D*?<A*
O+I**gDQAHA=Y*?<A*=AZ75:5:N*87?AND=5A>Y*?AT?M76*7:R*>?=M8?M=76Y*
87::D?*@A*ATV675:AR*@F*O.*?=7:>4A=*>5:8A*@D?<*67:NM7NA>*><7=A*
?<A*>7ZA*=M6A>*5:*?<A>A*87?AND=5A>I*3:*AT7ZV6A*5>*hEA*QA:?*?D*7*
@7>fA?@766*N7ZA*D:*J7?M=R7FI*a<A*V67FA=>*7?*?<A*N7ZA*QA=A*766*
HA=F*?766iI*Players*5>*:D?*7,:0*7@>?=78?*8D:8AV?Y*867>>*D=*N=DMV*5:*
NA:A=76*7:R*?<A=A4D=A*5?*5>*D@65N7?D=F*?D*5:>A=?*the*@A4D=A*players*
5:*@D?<*?<A*(:N65><*7:R*JV7:5><*HA=>5D:>I*a<A*478?*?<5>*=M6A*AT5>?>*
5:*@D?<*?<A*O.*7:R*O+*7:R*=A>M6?>*5:*?<A*>A8D:R*ZD>?*R54458M6?*
?D*78bM5=A*87::D?*@A*ATV675:AR*@F*?=7:>4A=*4=DZ*O.Y*=7?<A=*@F*
=A>?=M8?M=5:N*5:*?<A*5:?A=67:NM7NAI*a<A*R7?7*4=DZ*?<5>*>?MRF*
>MVVD=?*7*RM76*788A>>*<FVD?<A>5>*Q<A=A*?<A*O+*6A7=:A=>*<7HA*
788A>>*?D*G:5HA=>76*B=7ZZ7=*@M?*?<5>*Z7F*@A*V7=?6F*@6D8fAR*
@F*?<A*M>A*D4*NA:A=76*?<5:f5:N*>?=7?AN5A>I
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B7=8C7*%7FD*,+--e0*7:R*O5M*7:R*B6A7>D:*,+--+0*8D:86MRAR*
?<A*>?=M8?M=76*M>A*D4*the Q7>*78bM5=AR*ZD=A*=A7R56F*?<7:*?AT?M76*
Q<A=A7>*DM=*8D:86M>5D:>*><DQ*?<A*=AHA=>AI*EA*>MNNA>?*?QD*VD>2
>5@6A*478?D=>I*#:A*Z7F*@A*RMA*?D*?<A*(:N65><*67:NM7NA*H7=5A?F*
?<7?*5>*?7MN<?*in situY*X=5?5><*(:N65><*D=*3ZA=587:*(:N65><I*a<A=A*
7=A*>5?M7?5D:>*5:*Q<58<*?<A*RA45:5?A*7=?586A*5>*M>AR*R544A=A:?6F*
5:*>AHA=76*8D:?AT?>*5:*?<A>A*?QD*H7=5A?5A>I*_D=*AT7ZV6A*>AHA=76*
:D:2NA:A=58*:DM:>*?<7?*=A4A=*?D*V678A>*?7fA*:D*RA45:5?A*7=?586A*
5:*@D?<*H7=5A?5A>*Q<A:*7*=D6A*5>*5ZV65AR1*at sea*,7>*7*>756D=0Y*in
prison*,7>*7*8D:H58?0Y*7:R*at/in college* ,4D=*>?MRA:?>0I*3ZD:N*
?<5>*N=DMVY*X=5?5><*(:N65><*<7>*in hospital*,7>*7*V7?5A:?0*7:R*at
university*,7>*7*>?MRA:?0Y*Q<A=A*3ZA=587:*(:N65><*=AbM5=A>*in
the hospital*7:R*at the university*,?<DMN<*3ZA=587:*(:N65><*
RDA>*766DQ* at college*7:R*in school0I*E<A:* ?<A* 5ZV65AR* =D6A>*
D4*V7?5A:?*D=*>?MRA:?*RD*:D?*7VV6FY*?<A*RA45:5?A*7=?586A*5>*M>AR*
5:*@D?<*R576A8?>I*3*>A8D:R*VD>>5@6A*478?D=*Z7F*@A*RMA*?D*?<A*
JV7:5><*H7=5A?F*?<7?*5>*>VDfA:I*JDM?<A=:*;D:A*7:R*WA:5:>M67=*
JV7:5><*<7HA*>65N<?6F*R544A=A:?*=M6A>*?<7?*Z7F*ATV675:*?<A*R542
4A=A:8A*4DM:R*5:*DM=*>?MRF*7:R*?<7?*D4*B7=8C7*%7FDI*_M=?<A=*
5:HA>?5N7?5D:*Q566*<7HA*?D*@A*87==5AR*DM?*?D*VD>5?*7:*7RR5?5D:76*
478?D=*?D*788DM:?*4D=*?<5>*VA=4D=Z7:8A
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:5?A*7=?586A*RDA>*5:8=A7>A*788M=78F*=7?A>*78=D>>*766*87?AND=5A>Y*
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)D:5:*et alI*,+--e0I
5. Bibliographic references
BickertonY*UA=AfY*.!e.1*Roots of languageI*%58<5N7:1*c7=DZ7*W=A>>I
c
arlucci
Y*OD=A:`D* et alIY* +--[1* hn7=57?5D:>* D:* G2><7VAR* 6A7=:5:NiY*
Information and Computation +-^*,e0Y*.+[^2.+!^I
Díez-BeDmarY*%7=C7*XA6r:*j*J`56H57*PaPPY*+--e1*ha<A*M>A*D4*?<A*(:N65><*
7=?586A*>F>?AZ*@F*;<5:A>A*7:R*JV7:5><*6A7=:A=>iY*5:*B7s?7:A66A*
G
ilquin
Y*J`56H57*P
aPP
*j*%7=C7* XA6r:* D
íez
-B
eDmar
*,AR>I01*Linking
up contrastive and learner corpus researchY*$AQ*tD=f1*(R5?5D:>*
LDRDV51*.^\2.\"I
D
onato
Y* L58<7=RY* .!!^1* h;D66A8?5HA* >8744D6R5:N* 5:* >A8D:R* 67:NM7NA*
6A7=:5:NiY*5:*l7ZA>*lantolf*j*B7@=5A67*aPPel*,AR>I01*Vygotskian
approaches to second language researchY*$AQ*lA=>AF1*3@6AT1*]]2"[I
DulayY*gA5R5Y*%7=5:7*Burt*j*J?AV<A:*krashenY*.!e+1*Language twoI*
$AQ*tD=f1*#T4D=R*G:5HA=>5?F*W=A>>I
García mayoY*%7=C7*RA6*W567=Y*+--e1*ha<A*78bM5>5?5D:*D4*4DM=*:D:NA:A=58*
M>A>*D4*?<A*7=?586A*?<A*@F*JV7:5><*(_O*6A7=:A=>iY*System*][Y*""-2"["I*
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