Page 1 GAO-24-106263 Military Spouse Employment
Employment is a top concern for spouses of active-duty military service
members, according to the Department of Defense (DOD). Military spouses may
face challenges obtaining or maintaining employment that meets their financial or
professional needs due to the demands of military life. These demands include
frequent moves, overseas deployments, and irregular work hours for the service
member.
Some military spouses may pursue part-time employment—although it generally
pays less and provides fewer benefits than full-time employment—because they
can more quickly find part-time jobs. Other military spouses may work part time
because it allows them to better balance work with caregiving or other
responsibilities. However, managing military life and limited or unsatisfactory
employment options could create additional stress for military spouses and
families. This could, in turn, affect military families’ decisions about whether the
service member remains in the military.
House Report 117-397 includes a provision for GAO to examine the
characteristics and experiences of military spouses who work part time. We are
providing information on the size, demographic characteristics, employment
experiences, and health and well-being of this workforce.
• In 2021, about a third of employed military spouses worked part time based
on our estimates using data from DOD’s most recent survey of military
spouses. Overall, we estimate that there were about 540,000 civilian spouses
of active-duty military service members. The vast majority—around 90
percent—were women. Additionally, we estimate that about half of all military
spouses (270,000) were employed in 2021. Of these individuals who were
employed, about a third (88,000) worked part time.
• Military spouses we interviewed who worked part time reported various
employment challenges, including being underpaid or overqualified for their
job, lacking opportunities for career advancement, and not earning retirement
benefits. Although many other civilian workers may experience similar
challenges, military spouses discussed how military life—including frequent
moves—contributes to their employment challenges.
• In DOD’s 2021 survey, military spouses who worked part time reported levels
of satisfaction with military life that were similar to military spouses who
worked full time. However, DOD reported that, overall, military spouses’
satisfaction with military life has been decreasing since 2012.
U.S. Government Accountability Office
Military Spouse Employment: Part
-Time
Workforce Characteristics and Perspectives
GAO
-24-106263
Q&A
Report to the Committee on Armed Services, House of Representatives
February
8, 2024
Why This Matters
Key Takeaways
Errata: On May 9,
2024, GAO
reissued this
report to revise a
paragraph on
page 4 and
related endnote 6
to clarify that the
administrative and
survey data we
analyzed
measured military
spouse
employment over
different
timeframes.
Page 2 GAO-24-106263 Military Spouse Employment
We estimate that about 88,000 of approximately 540,000 military spouses who
were civilians worked part time in 2021, according to our analysis of data from
DOD’s Survey of Active Duty Spouses.
1
The 2021 survey data were the most
recent and comprehensive data available on the employment status and well-
being of military spouses at the time of our review. To focus on employment
issues outside of military service, our analysis did not include military spouses
who were active-duty service members themselves, only military spouses who
were civilians. Our estimates are described in more detail below.
Overall employment status
The employment status of the estimated 540,000 military spouses—of whom
around 90 percent were women—was as follows:
• Employed. About half (270,000) worked for pay in either a full-time or part-
time capacity.
2
• Not employed and not seeking work. Around a third (196,000) were neither
working nor seeking work for various reasons, such as attending school or
caring for children or other family members.
• Not employed but seeking work. The smallest segment (about 74,000)
were unemployed but actively seeking work.
Part-time employment
Of the estimated 270,000 employed military spouses, about 88,000 or a third (32
percent) worked part time (see fig.1).
3
Within the general civilian population,
about 19 percent of married and employed individuals worked part time in 2021,
according to our analysis of data from the Bureau of Labor Statistics. Various
factors could help explain this difference, including age, gender, educational
level, or other demographic characteristics.
Figure 1: Estimated Percentage of Employed Military Spouses Who Worked Part
Time or Full Time in 2021
Note: Estimates in the figure have a maximum margin of error of ±2 percentage points within a 95 percent
confidence interval. We rounded the estimated number of employed military spouses to the nearest thousand
individuals.
We found that employed military spouses were more likely or less likely to work
part time based on various demographic characteristics in our statistical model
(see fig. 2).
4
How many military
spouses worked part
time?
What do we know about
the
demographic
characteristics
of
military spouses who
worked part time?
Page 3 GAO-24-106263 Military Spouse Employment
Figure 2: Selected Characteristics of Employed Military Spouses that Indicated
Increased or Decreased Likelihood of Working Part Time in 2021
Note: In our statistical model, these selected characteristics were statistically significant at least at the 95
percent confidence level. Our model solely included employed military spouses and did not explain why
different groups of military spouses were more likely or less likely to work part time. To examine potential
reasons why the groups we identified were more likely or less likely to work part time, we would need to explore
a wider range of characteristics via an experimental design, which was outside the scope of this study.
a
We categorized the self-reported careers of military spouses into blue-collar and white-collar jobs. We defined
blue-collar jobs as those that typically involve manual labor or do not generally require a 4-year college degree
(e.g., customer service representatives, commercial drivers). In contrast, we defined white-collar jobs as those
that tend to require higher levels of education or entail administrative and managerial work (e.g., teachers,
nurses).
b
Based on the available data, we compared employed military spouses who never experienced a military move
to those who experienced at least one move. We could not examine the potential impact of multiple military
moves.
Additionally, we found that military spouses were more likely or less likely to work
part time based on various demographic characteristics of their service member
spouse (see fig.3).
Figure 3: Selected Characteristics of Service Members that Indicated Increased or
Decreased Likelihood of Their Spouse Working Part Time in 2021
Note: In our statistical model, these selected characteristics were statistically significant at least at the 95
percent confidence level. Our model solely included employed military spouses and did not explain why
different groups of military spouses were more likely or less likely to work part time. To examine potential
reasons why the groups we identified were more likely or less likely to work part time, we would need to explore
a wider range of characteristics via an experimental design, which was outside the scope of this study.
a
These results included service members from DOD’s first four pay grades (E-1 through E-4) out of nine total
pay grades for enlisted service members.
b
About 83 percent of service members were male in 2021 according to DOD data. Nonetheless, we found this
was a statistically significant characteristic associated with increased likelihood of employed military spouses
working part time. We did not examine any potential dynamics between the gender of the service member and
the gender of the individual to whom they were married.
c
The statistically significant category included spouses of service members who had not been deployed since
September 11, 2001 (in comparison to spouses of service members who had been deployed since that time).
For a complete list of the characteristics included in our statistical model,
including characteristics that we did not find to be associated with increased or
decreased likelihood of working part time, see appendix I.
Page 4 GAO-24-106263 Military Spouse Employment
The largest employment sector was private companies, in which about half of
employed military spouses worked part time or full time in 2021 (see fig. 4). In
contrast, self-employment was more prevalent among the military spouses who
worked part time (28 percent) than among those who worked full time (5
percent).
5
Figure 4: Military Spouse Employment by Sector, 2021
Note: Estimates in the figure have a maximum margin of error of ±3 percentage points within a 95 percent
confidence interval.
Government was the third largest employment sector among military spouses
who worked part time, but the second largest among those who worked full time.
This sector included about 73,000 military spouses employed either part time or
full time across federal, state, and local governments.
Within the government sector, DOD employed a substantial number of military
spouses in civilian jobs. Over the course of 2021, about 46,000 military spouses
worked for DOD.
6
• DOD civil service positions. Of those 46,000 DOD-employed military
spouses, more than half (about 25,000) worked in federal civil service
positions at DOD, and mostly in full-time jobs. Among the positions they held
were budget analysts, information technology specialists, and nurses.
• Positions often at military bases. The remaining 21,000 DOD-employed
military spouses worked at entities that are often located on DOD military
bases that generate revenue (e.g., retail stores) or collect operating fees
(e.g., recreational facilities). Such positions included educational and training
instructors, food service workers, and retail store workers.
The 17 military spouses we interviewed from five discussion groups said they
worked part time because they needed flexible schedules to care for children or
to accommodate frequent military moves.
Child care needs
Nearly all military spouses we interviewed said they worked part time because
they were the primary caregivers for their children.
7
They said they needed
flexible jobs with reduced hours because their service member spouse was not
consistently or predictably able to contribute to child care.
8
For example, one
military spouse noted that her husband’s rotating schedule changed every few
months, and it was difficult to find an employer that would grant her that much
flexibility. Similarly, many military spouses noted that when the service member
was on duty, the military spouse needed to frequently function as a single parent,
responsible for all school drop-offs and pickups or grocery shopping, for
example.
What were the largest
employment sectors for
military spouses who
worked part time?
What were some
common
reasons
military spouses said
they worked part time?
Page 5 GAO-24-106263 Military Spouse Employment
Source: GAO transcription of discussion group recordings. | GAO-24-106263
Furthermore, getting help with child care was difficult, several military spouses
said. Some noted that child care costs were prohibitive or that child care services
were not readily available. Some other military spouses said that, due to
relocations, they did not have nearby friends or family members who could help
care for their children. For example, one military spouse noted that she would
prefer to work full time; however, it was not possible without family nearby to help
with her two young children.
Frequent moves
Many military spouses who worked part time also described the adverse effects
of frequent military moves on their employment opportunities, in some cases
leading them to take part-time work. Many spouses also noted that these moves
led to the end of their employment. For example, one military spouse said she
had to give up her full-time “dream job” when she moved from one country to
another. In general, many military spouses described how these moves made it
difficult to pursue work that paid more or that was better aligned with their
specific career goals and skills.
9
For example, one military spouse said she had
tried unsuccessfully for years to obtain a federal civil service job. After she finally
obtained one, she said her husband received a relocation order fewer than 30
days later. Her employer was unable to transfer her job to the new location.
Source: GAO transcription of discussion group recordings. | GAO-24-106263
Moreover, some military spouses said that moving their families was a time-
consuming process that took away from working. For example, they needed to
spend time locating schools or child care for their children or housing for their
families. One military spouse said that after a move the burden to establish new
routines for the family generally falls to the military spouse and that fulfilling these
responsibilities takes time away from searching for a job. A few others noted that
finding a new job after each move can also be time-consuming.
The military spouses we interviewed in our discussion groups reported various
employment challenges, including being underemployed (e.g., overqualified for a
job), lacking a career path or opportunities for advancement, and not earning
retirement benefits.
Underemployment
Nearly all of the 17 military spouses we interviewed expressed frustration with at
least one form of underemployment. While there is not a single, universal
measure of underemployment, it generally refers to working in a job that does not
meet one’s financial or professional needs. Below are examples of why military
spouses said their part-time jobs did not fully meet their needs.
What employment
challenges did military
spouses who worked
part time report?
Statement from a military spouse on the impact of child care needs
“I would like to be working full time; I have worked full time. But child care is the major limiting
factor. And it’s not just access to safe and affordable child care. When my spouse is on
temporary duty assignment, like right now, I am in single-parent mode. There is no backup…I do
not have family nearby.”
“We run into these problems when [moving with the military]. You are in a new place; you don’t
know anybody. I get into this rotation of, you get to a new [location], you get a not-so-good
job—a $13 an hour job. You do that for a year, get your schedule figured out, and then land a
great job making $80,000. Everything is going good, and then guess what? You get [military
Page 6 GAO-24-106263 Military Spouse Employment
• Being underpaid. Nearly all the military spouses said they were not satisfied
with their current pay or perceived that they were underpaid compared to
their colleagues. For example, one military spouse said part-time work
allowed her to “be a mom” but it did not provide enough money “to make
ends meet” or to pay for travel to visit family out of state. Some military
spouses said they felt that gaps in their work experience and shorter periods
of employment—both of which were often due to frequent military moves—
played a role in their pay levels. For example, one military spouse said she
had to start at the bottom of the pay scale with each move. Several also said
that jobs with better pay might not be readily available in their new location;
they often found that their employment options were limited to entry-level
positions or lower-paying jobs, such as retail or child care positions.
• Working outside their professional field. Several military spouses said
they had to take jobs outside their professional fields because they could not
find relevant jobs in their locations. For example, one spouse who could not
find work as a paralegal when she accompanied her husband to an overseas
location instead worked as a fitness instructor. Another spouse said that she
would prefer to work in public policy, the field in which she held a master’s
degree; however, her husband’s frequent moves prevented her from building
necessary professional expertise in a policy area.
• Seeking a full-time job. Although many spouses said they were unable to
work full time for the reasons described previously, some said they could
work full time if an employer offered that or if child care were more readily
available. For example, one teacher with decades of experience and relevant
education said she was not offered full-time positions while she was teaching
overseas. She said the schools she taught at generally provided full-time
positions only to teachers who could commit to staying in the country for a
certain amount of time.
Source: GAO transcription of discussion group recordings. | GAO-24-106263
Lack of career path
Many military spouses we interviewed expressed frustration with their career
path. A few stated that they had jobs but wanted careers. As one military spouse
explained it, the two words have different implications; a part-time job is not your
career, and she found it less fulfilling. Another spouse said she settled for
unsatisfactory jobs because she was not offered positions that aligned with her
career goals. Some spouses said they believed employers were unwilling to hire
military spouses because of their frequent moves. Similarly, several other
spouses said they found it difficult to obtain raises and promotions, in part,
because of frequent moves and the resulting lack of job continuity on their
resumes.
Source: GAO transcription of discussion group recordings. | GAO-24-106263
Statement from a military spouse about the lack of career options
“Women in our forties are ready for that career move, and our kids are old enough that we are in
a position…to make a career move. But, again, we’re subject to deployments, [military] moves,
and availability [of jobs]…it’s extremely limited. So, we just continue to take the [part-time] job.”
Statement from a military spouse about her level of pay
“My plan was to work full time when my husband retired…but because of my employment
gaps and career change, I could not find employment that paid enough. So, I’m continuing to
work part time so that I can say I’ve got 3 or 4 years’ experience in [my] career field… [My
husband and I have] applied to literally the same company, and he got offered $10,000 more
than me, even though he didn’t have a degree [like me].”
Page 7 GAO-24-106263 Military Spouse Employment
Lack of retirement benefits
Many military spouses expressed concern about their lack of retirement savings,
noting that their part-time jobs generally did not offer retirement benefits.
10
Some
others said they did not stay in previous jobs long enough to qualify for their
employers’ retirement account matching contributions, or said they experienced
challenges rolling over funds into new retirement accounts when they left their
jobs. One military spouse explained that it is common among military spouses to
have “a trickle” of retirement contributions at one job, and then “a trickle” from
another, but nothing if they are working as independent contractors. She also
lamented that “it hurts my brain” to navigate all the retirement account transfers.
Some military spouses said their lack of individual retirement savings and low
earnings made them feel dependent on their service member spouse for their
long-term financial security. For example, one military spouse said that because
she made trade-offs like accepting jobs without retirement benefits in exchange
for job flexibility to care for children, she was dependent on her service member
spouse to sustain her financially in retirement.
To help manage the above employment challenges, many military spouses told
us that having more opportunities for remote work and other portable jobs that
they could keep after moving would greatly improve their ability to maintain stable
employment and develop their careers. Many military spouses also expressed a
desire for better access to federal civil service jobs, including more transparency
in the hiring process and more portable positions.
11
Source: GAO transcription of discussion group recordings. | GAO-24-106263
Military spouses who worked part time reported similar levels of physical and
mental health in recent years as military spouses who worked full time. To
consider the potential impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on military spouses’
responses to questions about their health and well-being in DOD’s 2021 survey,
we also analyzed available data in the 2019 survey on these topics.
12
Physical health
We estimate that in 2019 almost 60 percent of military spouses—whether
employed part time or full time—rated their general health as excellent or very
good. We could not compare how military spouses’ general health changed
between 2019 and 2021 because the 2021 survey did not ask military spouses to
rate their general health.
Mental health
Military spouses employed part time and full time generally reported similar levels
of mental health in 2021 and in 2019. However, we could not directly compare
military spouses’ mental health across both years because the 2021 survey used
a slightly different mental health measure.
• In 2021, DOD used a mental health index to measure how often military
spouses felt depressed, nervous, or anxious in the previous week. The
average mental health score for military spouses who worked part time was
not statistically different from those who worked full time.
13
How did military
spouses who worked
part time characterize
their
health?
Statement from a military spouse on the desire for job stability
“I never imagined it would be almost impossible to find steady, remote work as a military
spouse. Preferably it would be [within the federal civil service]. Because I would like stability. I
would very much like to know how much I will get paid every month. I would very much like to
have that work stability, so I am not always hustling.”
Page 8 GAO-24-106263 Military Spouse Employment
• However, after controlling for various characteristics of individual military
spouses and their service member spouse using the 2021 survey data, we
found that military spouses with the best mental health scores (lowest
incidence of mental health issues) were more likely to be employed full time
than part time.
14
In contrast, we did not find differences based on part-time
versus full-time employment among those with "moderate” or “high” levels of
mental health issues.
Although military spouses who worked part time scored slightly lower on a
financial well-being scale than those who worked full time, the average scores for
both groups were within a range that indicated a moderate level of financial well-
being in 2021. This financial well-being measure was one that DOD adapted from
an existing Consumer Financial Protection Bureau (CFPB) scale and applied to
its military spouse survey data. Specifically, the average financial well-being
score for military spouses who worked part time in 2021 was approximately 56,
on a scale of 0 to 100, compared to 59 for military spouses who worked full time.
However, after controlling for various characteristics of individual military spouses
and their service member spouse, military spouses who worked part time were
less likely to have slightly below average scores (41-50) compared to those who
worked full time.
15
Nonetheless, we did not find differences based on part-time
versus full-time employment among military spouses with the lowest or highest
levels of financial well-being (scores of 0-40 or 61-100, respectively).
Military spouses who worked part time reported levels of satisfaction with military
life that were similar to the levels for other military spouses, including those who
worked full time.
• Almost half of military spouses who worked part time or full time said they
were “satisfied” or “very satisfied” with the military lifestyle.
16
However, DOD
reported that, overall, military spouses’ satisfaction with military life has been
decreasing since 2012 and was statistically lower in 2021 than in all previous
years.
17
DOD’s report did not include an assessment of why military spouses’
reported satisfaction with military life has decreased over time.
• More than half of military spouses—whether employed part time or full time,
unemployed but seeking work, or out of the workforce altogether—said they
supported the idea of their service member spouse remaining on active duty.
• Nonetheless, several military spouses who participated in our discussion
groups said their employment challenges were a factor in their family’s
discussions about whether to remain in military life. However, none of these
individuals said they were considering leaving military life until after their
spouse completes the 20 years of service that are required to qualify for a
defined benefit military pension.
18
We provided a draft of this report to DOD for review and comment. DOD did not
have any comments on the report.
To estimate the size and demographic characteristics of military spouses who
worked part time, we analyzed data from DOD’s 2019 and 2021 surveys of
military spouses, the two most recent surveys available at the time of our review.
This biennial survey examines the experiences and attitudes of a generalizable
sample of military spouses on a range of topics, including employment, health
and well-being, and satisfaction with military life.
How did military
spouses who worked
part time characterize
their financial well
-
being?
How satisfied with
military life are military
spouses who worked
part time
?
Agency Comments
How GAO Did This
Study
Page 9 GAO-24-106263 Military Spouse Employment
To examine whether military spouse and service member characteristics and
military spouses’ perspectives about their health and well-being were associated
with their part-time or full-time employment status, we calculated descriptive
statistics and conducted quasi-binomial logistic regressions using the 2021
survey data.
19
Our analyses included military spouses who were legally married
to active-duty members of the Army, Navy, Marine Corps, and Air Force
(including Space Force) because those were the service branches included in
DOD’s survey. Our analyses did not include military spouses married to
members of the Coast Guard, which is within the Department of Homeland
Security. Additionally, since we sought to provide information on the military
spouse part-time workforce overall, we did not examine characteristics and
experiences of military spouses by service branch.
In our regression model, we accounted for demographic factors of employed
military spouses and service members, including age, gender, and race.
Additionally, we accounted for military experiences (e.g., military moves and
deployments) and military spouses’ attitudes about their employment, family’s
health and financial well-being, and military life. For the complete list of
characteristics included in our model, see appendix I. Associations we identified
were statistically significant at least at the 95 percent confidence level in our
regression model.
To consider the potential impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on military spouses’
health and financial well-being, we analyzed available data on these topics using
the 2019 and 2021 DOD survey data. We then assessed whether our
conclusions differed depending on whether the data were from before (2019) or
during (2021) the pandemic. We did not identify any substantial differences within
the scope of our analyses.
To focus on employment issues outside of military service, our analysis included
only military spouses who were civilians. We did not include military spouses who
were active-duty service members themselves.
All percentage estimates in this report have a margin of error of plus or minus 10
percentage points or fewer.
To calculate the number of military spouses employed by DOD, we analyzed
DOD administrative data on civilian personnel for calendar years 2021 and 2022,
the most recent full years of data at the time of our review.
20
We determined that the DOD survey and administrative data were reliable for our
purposes. To assess whether the data were reliable, we interviewed DOD
officials about the agency’s processes for collecting and maintaining these data
and any potential data limitations relevant to our planned analyses. We also
conducted electronic tests for missing data, outliers, and obvious errors.
To describe the potential benefits and challenges of working part time, we
conducted five virtual discussion groups with a non-generalizable sample of 17
military spouses, including spouses of enlisted service members and officers in
any military service branch. We interviewed one of these 17 military spouses
individually rather than as part of one of our discussion groups due to scheduling
challenges. We selected discussion group participants by disseminating a short
online survey to collect information on their employment experiences. We
selected military spouses who said they (1) were married to a current or former
active-duty service member, (2) worked part time at some point while their
spouse was on active duty, (3) were not currently serving on active duty
themselves, and (4) had at least one child.
21
We also sought demographic
variation across our groups.
22
To characterize the views of these military spouses throughout this report, we
defined modifiers (e.g., “nearly all”) to quantify participants’ views as follows:
Page 10 GAO-24-106263 Military Spouse Employment
• “Nearly all” represents 14 to 17 participants,
• “Many” represents nine to 13 participants,
• “Several” represents six to eight participants,
• “Some” represents three to five participants, and
• “A few” represents two participants.
We interviewed representatives of three military service organizations—which we
selected based on their prior published work on military spouse employment
issues—to obtain examples of challenges related to part-time employment for
military spouses.
To obtain background information on the topic, we reviewed relevant peer-
reviewed literature and literature produced by non-academic, professional
organizations, including military service organizations and business groups, from
the past 10 years.
To obtain DOD’s perspectives on employment opportunities and challenges for
military spouses, we interviewed an official from DOD’s Office of Military
Community and Family Policy, which provides military spouse employment
assistance, among other services.
We conducted this performance audit from September 2022 to February 2024 in
accordance with generally accepted government auditing standards. Those
standards require that we plan and perform the audit to obtain sufficient,
appropriate evidence to provide a reasonable basis for our findings and
conclusions based on our audit objectives. We believe that the evidence
obtained provides a reasonable basis for our findings and conclusions based on
our audit objectives.
The Honorable Mike Rogers
Chairman
The Honorable Adam Smith
Ranking Member
Committee on Armed Services
House of Representatives
For more information, contact: John D. Sawyer, Director, Education, Workforce,
and Income Security, [email protected], (202) 512-7215.
Chuck Young, Managing Director, Public Affairs, [email protected], (202) 512-
4800.
A. Nicole Clowers, Managing Director, Congressional Relations,
[email protected], (202) 512-4400.
Staff Acknowledgments: Meeta Engle (Assistant Director), Justin Gordinas
(Analyst in Charge), James Ashley, James Bennett, Tinae Bluitt, Denise Cook,
Morgan Jones, Christy Ley, Serena Lo, Cynthia Nelson, Afsana Oreen, Raquel
Qualls-Hampton, Paras Sharma, Meg Sommerfeld, and William Stupski.
Connect with GAO on Facebook, Flickr, Twitter, and YouTube. Subscribe to our
RSS Feeds or Email Updates. Listen to our Podcasts.
Visit GAO on the web at https://www.gao.gov.
This work of the United States may include copyrighted material, details at
https://www.gao.gov/copyright.
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GAO Contact
Information
Page 11 GAO-24-106263 Military Spouse Employment
Table 1: Variables Included in Regression Analysis of Employed Military Spouses (Part Time
or Full Time), 2021
Dependent variable: Likelihood of part-time employment among employed military
spouses
Demographic characteristics of military spouses and service members
Age, military spouse
Career field, military spouse
Child(ren) in household
Gender, both
Highest education level, both
Pay grade, service member
Race and/or ethnicity, both
Total household income
Service members' military experiences
Household relocated due to a change in the service member’s military base
Number of deployments for the service member since September 11, 2001
Military spouses’ attitudes on…
Needing to find a job that allows them to work more hours
Personality changes, if any, in their spouse after their spouse returned home from deployment
Satisfaction with military life
Their family’s financial well-being
Their mental health
Source: GAO analysis of Department of Defense (DOD) 2021 Survey of Active Duty Spouses data. | GAO-24-106263
1
DOD’s survey includes data on spouses of active-duty members of the Army, Navy, Marine Corps,
and Air Force (including Space Force). Based on our analysis of the 2021 survey data, we estimate
that about 546,000 military spouses were civilians. However, we could only estimate the
employment status of about 540,000 military spouses—based on how many reported their
employment status in the survey. Throughout our report, we rounded our estimated numbers of
military spouses to the nearest thousand individuals. All percentages we estimate from the 2021
survey data have a margin of error of plus or minus 10 percentage points or fewer.
2
This employment does not account for any unpaid work that military spouses may perform, such
as caring for children or other family members or volunteer work.
3
DOD estimated the same percentage of employed military spouses (32 percent) worked part time
in 2019 based on its previous survey.
4
Using the 2021 survey data, we conducted a regression analysis to account for demographic
characteristics and other factors that might be associated with employed military spouses working
either part time or full time. We reported on factors that we found to be statistically significant at
least at the 95 percent confidence level in our regression model.
5
Similar percentages of military spouses also reported being self-employed in DOD’s previous
survey in 2019, which was conducted prior to the COVID-19 pandemic.
6
We calculated this number based on how many military spouses DOD identified in its monthly
administrative data on civilian employment over the course of 2021. In contrast, the 73,000 military
spouses who worked in federal, state, or local government positions that we discussed in the
preceding paragraph is a survey-based estimate of how many military spouses worked in
government at a single point in time in 2021 rather than over the course of the entire year.
7
To characterize the views of military spouses throughout this report, we defined modifiers (e.g.,
“nearly all”) to quantify participants’ views as follows: “Nearly all” represents 14 to 17 participants,
“many” represents nine to 13 participants, “several” represents six to eight participants, “some”
represents three to five participants, and “a few” represents two participants.
8
We previously identified similar child care challenges for military families, including frequent
moves, non-traditional work hours, and deployments. See GAO, Military Child Care: DOD Efforts to
Provide Affordable, Quality Care for Families, GAO-23-105518 (Washington, D.C.: Feb. 2, 2023).
Appendix I: Variables
Included in Regression
Analys
is
Endnotes
Page 12 GAO-24-106263 Military Spouse Employment
9
We previously reported that frequent military moves and difficulty transferring occupational
licenses pose challenges for military spouses pursuing careers. See GAO, DOD Should Continue
Assessing State Licensing Practices and Increase Awareness of Resources, GAO-21-193
(Washington, D.C.: Jan. 27, 2021).
10
We previously estimated in 2015 that full-time workers were about 2.6 times more likely than part-
time workers to be eligible for a retirement savings program offered by their employer, after
controlling for various characteristics of individual workers such as age, education, gender, and
occupation. See GAO, Retirement Security: Federal Action Could Help State Efforts to Expand
Private Sector Coverage, GAO-15-556 (Washington, D.C.: Sept. 10, 2015).
11
The President signed an executive order in June 2023 that, in part, directed certain federal
agencies to identify strategies for eliminating barriers to employment in the federal civil service for
military spouses. See Exec. Order No. 14,100, 88 Fed. Reg. 39,111 (June 15, 2023).
12
Compared to prior years, the 2021 survey was shorter and covered different topics. According to
DOD officials, the 2021 survey was modified because the Office of Management and Budget
requested a shorter survey as well as the addition of questions related to COVID-19 and food
security, among other topics.
13
In 2021, DOD’s mental health index ranged from 0 to 12, with higher scores representing higher
incidence of mental health issues. We categorized this range into 0-2 (low), 3-8 (moderate), and 9-
12 (high). We also found that in 2019 the average mental health scores for military spouses were
not statistically different based on part-time versus full-time employment.
14
For the list of the characteristics included in our regression model, see appendix I.
15
The CFPB Financial Well-Being Scale does not set parameters for “good” or “bad” scores, but it
can be used to establish benchmarks to analyze individuals’ financial well-being, according to
CFPB. We categorized scores based on ranges DOD used in its analysis of the 2021 survey data.
16
Even after controlling for various characteristics of individual military spouses and their service
member spouse, we did not find a difference in the reported satisfaction of military spouses who
worked part time compared to those who worked full time.
17
DOD, Office of People Analytics, Results From the 2021 Active Duty Spouse Survey, Report No.
2023-045 (Alexandria, VA: Feb. 9, 2023).
18
A defined benefit pension is an employer-sponsored retirement plan that typically provides a
benefit for the life of the participant, based on a formula specified in the plan that accounts for
factors such as an employee’s salary history and years of service. In contrast, a defined
contribution plan is an employer-sponsored, account-based plan, such as a 401(k), that allows
individuals to accumulate tax-advantaged retirement savings in an individual account based on
employee or employer contributions and the investment returns (gains and losses) earned on the
account. The military retirement system includes both a defined benefit and a defined contribution
component. See GAO, Military Pensions: Servicemembers Need Better Information to Support
Retirement Savings Decisions, GAO-19-631 (Washington, D.C.: Sept. 19, 2019).
19
A quasi-binomial logistic regression can be used to estimate the probability of an outcome when
there is too much variability in the data for a traditional probability model (e.g., logistic regression)
to produce accurate estimates.
20
We only discussed the 2021 DOD administrative data in our report because they were from the
same year as the 2021 survey data on the broader military spouse population that we analyzed.
21
We selected military spouses that had at least one child based, in part, on our background
interviews with military service organizations. Officials from these organizations noted that military
spouses with children are often limited in the hours they can work because they may face
challenges finding affordable child care or may be responsible for taking their children to and from
school, for example.
22
We sought to accommodate the schedules of all military spouses who applied to participate and
met our selection criteria. However, we could potentially be missing the perspectives of military
spouses who have less flexible work schedules if they chose not to apply to participate or did not
respond to our meeting invitation due to concerns about their availability.